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Section  •  C  3  / 

Copy  | 


BISHOP’S  HOUSE 


East  India,  Allahabad, 
March  1,  1922. 

I  have  read  this  work  in  manuscript  with  the 
keenest  interest  and  with  genuine  pleasure,  and  so 
has  my  bishop  (Rt.  Rev.  Angelo  Poli).  I  am  very 
sure  the  treatise  will  create  among  the  American 
people  a  deep  interest  in  the  affairs  of  our  Indian 
Missions  which  cannot  but  enlist  their  practical 
sympathy  in  behalf  of  much  that  yet  remains  to  be 
attempted.  .  .  . 

Fraternally  yours  in  St.  Francis, 

{Signed)  Fr.  Joseph  Carroll,  O.M.Cap., 

V.G.  of  the  Diocese  and  Pri¬ 
vate  Secretary  to  Rt.  Rev. 
Angelo  Poli,  O.M.Cap. 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  •  BOSTON  •  CHICAGO  •  DALLAS 
ATLANTA  •  SAN  FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

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MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Lro. 

TORONTO 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2019  with  funding  from 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  Library 


/ 


https://archive.org/details/indiaitsmissionsOOcath 


POPE  PIUS  XI. 
Father  of  the  Missions. 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


THE  CAPUCHIN  MISSION  UNIT 

(C.  S.  M.  C.) 

CUMBERLAND,  MARYLAND 


gotft 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

1923 


All  rights  reserved 


PRINTED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


Copyright,  1923. 

By  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 

Set  up  and  electrotyped.  Published  February,  1923. 


Press  of 

J.  ,T.  Little  &  Ives  Company 
New  York,  U.  S.  A. 


NIHIL  ORSTAT. 


Father  John  M.  Lenhart,  O.M.Cap., 

Father  Anscar  Zawart,  O.M.Cap., 

Censores  Deputati. 


IMPRIMI  PERMITTITUR. 

Father  Henry  Kluepfel,  O.M.Cap., 

Minister  Provincial. 

Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  Oct.  6,  1922. 

IMPRIMATUR. 

^  Michael  J.  Curley,  D.D., 

Archbishop  of  Baltimore. 

Baltimore,  Md.,  Oct.  16,  1922. 


TO 

THE  MISSIONARIES  OF  INDIA 

THE  CATHOLIC  STUDENTS’  MISSION  CRUSADE 

AND 

ALL  OTHER  FRIENDS  OF  THE  MISSIONS 


THIS  VOLUME 
IS 

RESPECTFULLY  DEDICATED 


/ 


PREFACE 


The  tremendous  increase  in  a  desire  to  know  about 
missions  which  has  been  seen  among  American  Catholics 
within  the  past  few  years  has  been  most  encouraging  to 
those  of  us  who  have  been  trying  to  aid  in  pressing  for¬ 
ward  the  bounds  of  the  Kingdom  of  God  on  earth.  It 
betokens  a  virile  Catholicism  of  the  kind  which,  humanly 
speaking,  is  indispensable  if  the  Church  in  this  country 
is  to  do  its  fair  share  in  pushing  back  the  borders  of 
Satan’s  dominions  and  take  advantage  of  the  myriad  of 
openings  for  carrying  out  our  Lord’s  command  to  “preach 
the  Gospel  to  every  creature.” 

At  the  outset  of  this  wave  of  increased  interest  we  who 
felt  a  responsibility  for  supplying  information  on  Mis¬ 
sions  to  those  who  sought  it  were  confronted  with  a  dearth 
of  printed  matter  with  which  to  meet  their  needs.  In  the 
English  language  there  are  but  few  books,  many  of  them 
incomplete  and  unsuited  to  our  use;  others  mere  transla¬ 
tions  from  foreign  languages  which  contain  so  little  of 
interest  for  the  average  American  that  they  seemed  fitted 
only  for  a  place  in  a  reference  library.  Certainly  they 
are  of  no  use  for  general  circulation. 

As  Field  Secretary  of  the  Catholic  Students’  Mission 
Crusade  I  was  naturally  in  touch  with  bodies  of  students 
and  others  anxious  to  do  something  for  the  Mission  cause. 
I  made  the  suggestion  that  no  better  service  could  be  ren¬ 
dered  by  a  Unit  than  to  make  a  study  of  some  particular 
field  and  give  the  results  to  the  American  Catholic  public. 
Several  Units  began  such  researches  but  only  one  has  been 


PREFACE 


x 

able  thus  far  to  bring  its  labors  to  fruition.  For  nearly 
four  years  the  theology  students  of  the  Capuchin  Mon¬ 
astery  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  Cumberland,  Maryland, 
have  been  engaged  in  the  work  of  studying  the  field  of 
India,  and  this  volume  is  presented  as  the  result  of  their 
loving  care  and  service. 

While  India  has  always  been  a  land  of  mystery  and  one 
most  fascinating  to  Western  students,  the  completion  of 
this  work  at  this  time  seems  most  providential,  for  at  no 
time  in  the  past  century  has  the  world’s  interest  been 
focused  upon  India  as  it  is  at  the  present,  and  at  no  time 
has  India  given  indication  of  playing  a  more  important 
role  in  the  world  history  than  it  does  now.  Now  if  ever 
is  a  Christian  viewpoint  essential  to  it,  and  now  is  the 
decisive  hour  of  Christian  missions  in  India. 

There  is  much  that  we  of  America  can  do.  Our  com¬ 
patriots  are  at  work  in  this  portion  of  the  Vineyard. 
Their  hands  need  upholding  and  they  rightly  look  to  us 
for  support  in  personnel,  in  material  resources,  in  spiritual 
aid.  Only  by  familiarizing  ourselves  with  their  needs  can 
we  render  adequate  assistance.  This  volume  is  sent  forth 
as  one  means  of  bringing  home  to  our  fellow  Americans 
what  more  than  three  hundred  millions  of  human  beings 
need  and  to  point  out  to  us  what  we  can  do  to  meet  that 
need.  While  India  and  Its  Missions  does  not  profess  to 
tell  all  about  either  India  or  its  missions,  one  who  has 
read  it  cannot  but  be  better  informed  and  more  vitally 
interested  in  India  and  its  problems. 

It  is  a  pleasure  to  me  personally  to  commend  it  es¬ 
pecially  to  our  more  mature  students  and  to  the  American 
Catholic  public  and  to  join  my  prayers  with  those  of 
its  devoted  compilers,  members  of  one  of  the  most  mis¬ 
sionary  branches  of  a  most  missionary  Religious  Order, 
that  it  may  be  the  means  of  helping  to  bring  India  to 
the  foot  of  the  Cross  and  thus  in  one  land  at  least  making 
possible  the  fulfillment  of  the  motto  of  the  Catholic 
Students’  Mission  Crusade,  under  the  inspiration  of 


PREFACE 


xi 


whose  zeal  this  work  was  conceived  and  carried  on :  “The 
Sacred  Heart  for  the  World,  and  the  World  for  the 
Sacred  Heart.” 

Floyd  Keeleb. 

Feast  of  the  Stigmata  of  St.  Francis,  1922. 


FOREWORD 


Those  who  have  watched  the  revival  of  the  missionary 
movement  among  Americans  within  the  last  few  years,  and 
who  have  noted  its  steady  growth  and  ever-increasing 
success,  cannot  fail  to  realize  that  a  new  enthusiasm  has 
been  awakened.  A  new  spirit  has  moved  our  young  Cath¬ 
olics  especially,  and  a  new  zeal  and  interest  now  inspires 
them  with  love  for  the  missions. 

But,  if  this  missionary  movement  is  to  endure,  it  must 
be  kept  alive.  An  adequate  means  to  this  end  is  to  foster 
and  spread  the  knowledge  of  the  missions.  It  is  for  our 
Catholic  youth,  then,  particularly  our  fellow-Crusaders, 
and  all  lovers  of  the  missions  in  Christ’s  Kingdom  on 
earth,  that  we  have  compiled  the  present  work  on  the  mis¬ 
sions  of  India.  Though  this  volume  is,  in  the  first  place, 
intended  for  Catholics,  still  we  hope  that  it  may  also 
prove  interesting  to  non-Catholics. 

The  first  part  of  the  work  is  devoted  to  the  study  of 
the  country  and  the  people.  In  the  second  part  is  given 
a  survey  of  the  history  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  India, 
Burma  and  Ceylon,  and  also  a  glimpse  of  non-Catholic 
activities.  The  third  portion  deals  with  the  real  work 
of  the  missionary,  the  trials  and  the  obstacles  that  beset 
his  path,  and  with  the  most  vital  problems  of  the  Indian 
missions  of  to-day. 

The  compilation  of  this  work  owes  its  beginning  to  Mr. 
Floyd  Keeler,  who,  as  Field-Secretary  of  the  Catholic 
Students’  Mission  Crusade,  said  in  the  “Crusade  Kotes” 


XIV 


FOREWORD 


of  The  Missionary ,  February  1919,  that  one  of  the  crying 
needs  of  the  Catholic  Students’  Mission  Crusade  was  a 
series  of  mission  books.  After  pointing  out  that  the  prog¬ 
ress  of  non-Catholic  endeavor  is  due  chiefly  to  the  sys¬ 
tematic  study  of  well-written  and  well-edited  mission  books, 
Mr.  Keeler  exhorted  the  Units  to  take  up  this  work,  saying 
at  the  same  time  that  to  write  such  books  would  be  “per¬ 
forming  one  of  the  most  important  services  possible  to 
the  Crusade.”  Our  response  to  this  appeal  is  India  and  Its 
Missions. 

Many  friends  have  aided  us  in  preparing  this  work. 
We  are  indebted  to  the  Rt.  Rev.  Dr.  Angelo  Poli,  0.  M. 
Cap.,  Bishop  of  Allahabad,  to  the  Very  Rev.  Joseph  Car- 
roll,  O.  M.  Cap.,  and  to  the  Rev.  Fathers  Egidius  and 
Augustine,  O.  M.  Cap.,  all  of  India.  Bishop  Poli  has 
kindly  read  the  third  part  of  the  book  and  Fr.  Joseph 
Carroll  has  given  some  valuable  notes  of  criticism  and 
correction  for  the  improvement  of  this  part  of  the  manu¬ 
script.  We  furthermore  bespeak  our  grateful  appreciation 
to  the  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  Joseph  Freri  for  supplying  us  with 
illustrations,  and  to  the  Rev.  Clifford  King,  S.  V.  D., 
now  in  China,  and  the  Rev.  Father  Markert,  S.  V.  D.,  for 
interest  taken  in  our  work. 

A  special  word  of  thanks  is  due  to  Mr.  Floyd  Keeler, 
who  was  ever  eager  to  encourage  and  lend  a  helping 
hand;  to  Dr.  Margaret  Lamont  of  South  Africa  for  fur¬ 
nishing  us  with  useful  information  regarding  the  missions 
of  India,  from  both  the  Catholic  and  the  non-Catholic 
viewpoints;  to  the  Very  Rev.  Henry  Kluepfel,  Provincial 
of  St.  Augustine’s  Province  of  Capuchin  Friars;  to 
the  Rev.  Fathers  Francis  Laing  and  Felix  M.  Kirsch, 
O.  M.  Cap.,  both  of  whom  have  taken  many  pains  in 
reading  over  the  manuscript.  Finally  we  tender  our  sin- 
cerest  thanks  to  the  Rev.  Fr.  John  M.  Lenhart,  O.  M.  Cap., 
for  his  lively  interest  in  our  work,  his  scholarly  direction, 
and  his  thorough  revision  of  the  manuscript,  especially  of 
the  chapters  on  ecclesiastical  history.  To  all  these  fellow- 


FOREWORD 


xv 


religious  and  friends  we  beg  to  express  our  gratitude  for 
their  assistance  and  many  favors. 

Capuchin  Mission  Unit. 

SS.  Peter  &  Paul’s  Monastery,  Cumberland,  Md. 

Feast  of  the  Holy  Rosary,  October  7,  1922. 


TABLE  OP  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface  .  . ix 

Foreword . . . xiii 


PAET  I 

Land  and  People 

CHAPTER 

I  The  Country .  3 

A  Wonderland — Boundaries,  Position  and  Size — 
Mountains — River  Systems  and  River  Plains — 
Climate — Monsoon  Periods,  Rain — Cold  and 
Heat  —  Irrigation  —  Plagues  —  Profiteering  — 

Flora — Fauna — Birds,  Reptiles,  Fishes,  Insects 
— Mineral  Resources — Commerce  and  Industry 
— Manufactures — Trade — Railway  Systems. 

II  Political  History . 15 

I.  Early  Development  :  Aborigines — The  Aryans — 
Buddhistic  Period — Various  Invasions — Period 
of  Historical  Deficiency — II.  Mohammedan  Pe¬ 
riod  :  Mohammedan  Conquests — Empire  of  The 
Great  Mogul — III.  Europeans  in  India :  The 
Dutch — The  Danes — The  Germans — The  French 
—  The  English  —  Ghandi  —  Extent  of  British 
Rule — Effects  of  British  Rule. 

Ill  Non- Christian  Religions  in  India . 29 

Animism  —  Vedism  —  Sacrifices  —  Popular  Brah¬ 
manism — Pantheistic  Brahmanism — Transmi¬ 

gration — Buddhism — Siva  and  Vishnu  Cults — 
Jainism  —  Mohammedanism  —  Sikhism  —  Zo¬ 
roastrianism — Modern  Hinduism — Hindu  Divin¬ 
ities — Home  Services — Temple  Services — Re¬ 
form  Movements. 


XVII 


xviii  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

IV  Manners  and  Customs . 40 


Costume  of  Men — Clothing  of  Women — Native 
Homes — Meals — Recreation — Indian  Etiquette 
Marriage  —  Funerals  —  Cremation  on  the 
Shores  of  the  Ganges — Social  Organization: 

Caste — The  Village  System — Some  Indian  Re¬ 
ligious  Customs:  Worship  of  Animals — “Holy” 

Cows  and  Bulls — Pilgrimages — Fakirs  and  Pen¬ 
itents. 

V  Education . 54 

A  Land  of  Schools,  Literature  and  Philosophy — 
Efforts  of  the  Natives,  Hindu  Higher  Education 
— Hindu  Lower  Education — Mohammedan  Edu¬ 
cation — Transition  Period:  Catholic  Missionar¬ 
ies — Missionary  Linguists — Protestant  Mission¬ 
aries — The  East  India  Company’s  Attitude  to¬ 
ward  Education — The  Language  Question — 
Triumph  of  English — Great  Britain  at  the  Helm 
— Revisions  of  the  Systems — Administration — 
Classification  of  Institutions — Curriculum — En¬ 
rollment — Self-Supporting  Schools — Results. 

VI  Literature  and  the  Fine  Arts . 68 

Indian  Literature  —  Vedic  Literature  —  Sanskrit 
Literature,  Mahabharata  —  Ramayana  —  Kali¬ 
dasa  —  Music  —  Architecture,  Sculpture,  Paint¬ 
ing  —  Buddhistic  Architecture  —  New  Brahman 
Architecture. 

PAKT  II 

Ecclesiastical  History 

I  Pioneer  Missionaries,  52?-1498  .  81 

Dawn  of  Christianity — St.  Thomas  Christians — 
Franciscans  and  Dominicans. 

II  Modern  Missions,  1498-1700  .  87 

European  Missionaries — Franciscans — Missions  in 
Northern  India — Colleges — Government  of  the 
Church — Ceylon — St.  Francis  Xavier — Mission¬ 
ary  in  Goa  and  Other  Missions — Jesuit  Mission 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


xix 


HAPTER  PAGE 

to  AkbaPs  Court — Robert  De  Nobili — Jesuits 
among  the  Thomas  Christians — Carmelites  in 
Goa — Oratorians  (Native) — Theatines — Augus- 
tinians  —  Capuchins  at  Pondicherry  —  Surat  — 
Madras — Inquisition. 

III  Modern  Missions  ( Continued ),  1700-1886  ....  HI 

The  Capuchins  at  Surat — Madras — Tibet  and  Ne¬ 
pal  —  Patna  —  Bettiah  —  Theatines  —  Carmel¬ 
ites — Augustinians,  Dominicans  and  Franciscans 
— Native  Oratorians — Burma  and  the  Barnab- 
ites — Jesuits  at  Madura — Mysore — Tanjore — 
Pondicherry — Joseph  Beschi — The  Malabar  Rite 
Dispute — Suppression  of  the  Jesuits — Carmel¬ 
ites  in  Former  Jesuits  Missions — Capuchins  in 
Hindostan — Persecution — The  F rench  Revolu¬ 
tion — Status  at  End  of  Eighteenth  Century — 
Portuguese  Schism — “The  Hammer  of  Schis¬ 
matics” — Missions  of  Northern  India — Begum 
Sumroo  of  Sardhana — The  Punjab — Bettiah — 

Tibet  —  Hindostan  —  Bombay  —  Verapoly  or 
Malabar — Quilon — Madura — Madras — The  Car¬ 
natic  Mission  and  the  Paris  Seminary — Pondi¬ 
cherry,  Coimbatore  and  Mysore  —  Prefecture 
Apostolic  of  Pondicherry — Bengal — Tranvan- 
core  and  Cochin — Mangalore — Goa — Ceylon — 

J  affna — Colombo — Burma. 

IV  Advance  Since  the  Establishment  of  the  Hier¬ 

archy  . 142 

Humanae  Salutis  Auctor — The  Hierarchy  a  Fact 
— New  Sees — Increase  of  Clergy — Brotherhoods 
and  Sisterhoods — Churches,  Schools  and  Chari¬ 
table  Institutions — Catholic  Literary  Enterprise 
— Advance  along  Spiritual  Lines — Advance  in 
Individual  Fields :  Province  of  Goa — -Province 
of  Agra  —  Province  of  Calcutta  —  Province  of 
Bombay — Province  of  Madras — Province  of 
Verapoly — Province  of  Simla — Province  of  Pon¬ 
dicherry — Province  of  Ceylon — Burma. 

V  The  World  War  and  Subsequent  Events  ....  169 

German  Missionaries  during  the  First  Months  of 
the  War — Imprisonment  of  First  Jesuits — Con- 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

centration  Camp  at  Admednagar — Power  of  the 
Press — Fate  of  Sisterhoods — Missionaries  of  As¬ 
sam  —  Tyrolese  Capuchins  Expelled  —  Second 
Trip  of  the  Golconda — Anxiety  of  the  Hier¬ 
archy — Achievements  of  the  Archbishop  of  Cal¬ 
cutta — Bombay  and  Poona — Bettiah — All  Mis¬ 
sions  of  Empire  Suffered  during  the  War — The 
Peace  Conference — Help  for  the  Missions — Stir 
in  Dacca — Meeting  of  South  Indian  Bishops — 
Catholic  Confederation — Marian  Congress — All- 
India,  Burma  and  Ceylon  Bishops’  Conference. 

VI  Protestant  Missions . 186 

First  Protestant  Missionaries — Baptists — Church 
of  England — Other  Denominations — Protestant 
Liberality — Schools — Philanthropic  Institutions 
— The  Press — Direct  Evangelistic  Work — Sun¬ 
day  Schools — Evangelization  in  Hospitals — The 
Bible-Woman — Missionary  Personnel — Y.  M.  C. 

A. — The  Missionaries’  Support — Result. 

PART  III 

Indian  Missions  of  To-day 

I  The  Missionary  and  His  Work . 203 

The  Missionary  Vocation — Climatic  Hardships — 
Dangers  of  the  Wild — Language  Difficulties — 

The  Central  Station — In  a  Native  Colony — 
Peacemaker — Night  Watchman — Visiting  the 
Sick — Missionary  on  Circuit — Want  of  a  Chapel 
— Peril  Attends  Sacrifice  of  Mass — Sickness  and 
Famine — Spiritual  Advantages  of  Famine  and 
Cholera  —  Evangelizing  the  Pagans  —  Catholic 
Life  —  Native  Christian  Marriages  —  Mission 
Theater — Most  Popular  Play — Insincerity  of 
Some  Converts — Joy. 

II  The  Catechists . 224 

Most  Vital  Problem — Great  Value  and  Need  of 
Catechists — The  Catechist’s  Work — In  Schools 
— Various  Kinds  of  Catechists — Women  Cate¬ 
chists — Wages — Training  of  Catechists — Rou¬ 
tine  in  Training  Schools. 


TABLE  OP  CONTENTS 


xxi 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

III  Schools  and  Periodicals . 234 


External  Hindrances — Character  of  the  Brahmans 
— First  Step  of  the  Missionary — Elementary 
Schools — Education  of  Women — Academies — 
University  Training  for  Women — Education  of 
Men — Trades — Catholic  Literature — The  Indian 
Catholic  Dailies — Catholic  Truth  Society. 

IV  Charitable  and  Social  Work . 244 

Early  Institutions — Hospitals — Appreciation  of 
the  Government — St.  Martha’s  Hospital — Want 
of  Catholic  Doctors  —  Medical  Missions  — 

A.  R.  M.  Association — Asylums — Dispensaries — 
Homes — Refuges  for  Widows — Sisters  of  St. 

Anne — Social  Work — Cooperative  Societies — 
Other  Societies. 

V  Difficulties  and  Obstacles  .  . 256 

Poverty — Storms  and  Cyclones — F  amine — Igno¬ 
rance  and  Indifference — Selfishness — Lack  of 
Charity — Perverse  Mind — Superstition — Hindu¬ 
ism — Brahmans  and  Mohammedans — Woman’s 
Lot — Mothers  and  Children — Caste  System — Re¬ 
cent  Developments — Attitude  of  Church  to 
Castes — Government’s  Attitude  toward  Religion 
— Divided  Christianity. 

VI  Native  Clergy . 282 

Need  of  Native  Clergy — Reasons  for  a  Native 
Clergy — Purposes  of  Catholic  Missionary  Ac¬ 
tivity  —  Perpetuation  —  Full  Development  of 
Church — Review  of  the  Past. 


APPENDIX 

Statistics  of  Non-Catholic  Activities  in  India,  Burma 


and  Ceylon . 295 

Bibliography . 297 

Index . 503 


. 


■ 


: 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


1.  Pope  Pius  XI.  Father  of  the  Missions  .  .  .  .Frontispiece 

PAGE 

2.  This  Upland  Lake  Supplies  the  Parched  Lowlands  with 

Water .  8 

3.  Courthouse  Street,  Calcutta . 16 

4.  A  Hindu  Priest  and  His  Disciple  with  Idol  and  Offerings  36 

5.  A  Rajah  with  His  Children,  Showing  the  Attire  of  the 

Ruling  Class . 40 

6.  This  Hut  Means  Home  to  a  Poor  Family  of  India  .  .  44 

7.  Fakir  of  Delhi.  The  Long  Finger  Nails  Render  the  Left 

Hand  Practically  Useless . 50 

8.  A  Brahman  Reading  from  a  Book  of  Palm  Leaves  .  .  60 

9.  Two  Prominent  Lawyers — Products  of  India’s  Schools  .  66 

10.  An  Architectural  Gem . 76 

11.  St.  Ignatius  Sending  St.  Francis  Xavier  to  India  ...  90 

12.  Poor  Clares  (Native  Sisters)  of  Travancore,  India  .  .  .  146 

13.  Dignitaries  at  Marian  Congress . 184 

14.  Natives  at  Work . 210 

15.  Capuchin  Missionaries  with  Catechists  and  School  Teachers  226 

16.  Jesuit  Missionaries  with  School  Children . 236 

17.  Mealtime  in  a  Christian  School . 242 

18.  Sisters  and  Nurses  of  St.  Martha’s  Hospital  at  Bangalore, 

South  India . 246 

19.  Sisters  Rendering  First  Aid . 252 

20.  A  Girl  in  Her  Best  Dress . ^ 

L  272 

21.  Women  Wearing  Caste  Ornaments . / 

22.  Bishop  Faisandier,  S.J.,  of  Trichinopoly  with  Native 

Priests . 284 


MAPS 

PAGE 

Political  Map  of  India . 14 

Ecclesiastical  Map — 1886  137 

Ecclesiastical  Map — 1923  168 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


PART  I 


LAND  AND  PEOPLE 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


CHAPTER  I 
THE  COUNTRY 

India  is  in  the  truest  sense  of  the  word  a  wonderland, 
a  land  of  the  strongest  contrasts,  a  miniature  world.  There 
is  scarcely  another  country  which  offers  so  many  sur¬ 
prises  and  is  of  so  many-sided  interest  to  the  traveler. 
The  variety  of  its  nature  is  almost  incredible. 

This  unique  region  has  vast  alluvial  plains ;  lays  claim 
to  the  highest  mountain  peak  in  the  world;  experiences 
the  greatest  heat  of  the  equator,  while  up  among  the  snow 
and  ice-clad  mountains  there  is  perennial  cold.  Again, 
it  is  the  land  of  excessive  drought  and  heaviest  rainfall; 
the  home  of  the  richest  soil  and  most  dismal  deserts.1  In¬ 
teresting  as  these  contrasting  features  are,  the  people, 
their  history,  religion,  languages,  education,  government, 
manners  and  customs,  form  a  study  still  more  fascinating. 
These,  however,  will  he  treated  severally  as  we  proceed. 
At  present,  we  shall  restrict  our  consideration  to  the  coun¬ 
try  as  such. 

Boundaries ,  Position  and  Size. — India  is  an  irregular 
peninsula  of  the  shape  of  a  triangle,  jutting  out  south¬ 
wards  from  the  mainland  of  Asia,  and  lies  within  the 
eighth  and  thirty-seventh  degree  of  north  latitude.  In  the 
north  the  mighty  Himalayas  raise  their  lofty  peaks,  sep¬ 
arating  the  country  from  the  rest  of  Asia.  The  Bay  of 
Bengal  forms  the  greater  part  of  its  eastern  boundary, 

*  Helmolt’s  Weltgcschichie ,  Leipzig,  Vol.  II,  1002,  p.  339. 

3 


4 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


while  the  southern  and  western  shores  are  washed  by  the 
waters  of  the  Indian  Ocean  and  Arabian  Sea  respectively. 
On  the  northeast  and  northwest  India  has  a  land  frontier. 

The  Indian  Empire  extends  over  a  territory  larger  than 
the  Continent  of  Europe  without  Russia.  It  comprises 
British  India,  legally  so-called,  i.e.,  all  territories  gov¬ 
erned  by  the  King  of  England,  and,  moreover,  all  other 
territories  ruled  by  native  princes  under  his  suzerainty. 
There  are  tracts  of  tribal  territory  on  the  northwestern 
and  northeastern  frontiers  under  the  political  influence  of 
Great  Britain,  though  not  yet  under  the  administrative 
rule  of  the  British  Indian  Government.  The  total  area 
of  British  India  proper  is  1,802,657  square  miles,  and  is 
inhabited  by  319,075,132  people.  These  figures  according 
to  the  census  of  March  18,  1921,  mark  an  increase  of  one 
and  two-tenths  per  cent  over  the  second  last  decennial 
census  of  1911. 2  India,  then,  is  the  home  of  one-fifth 
of  the  whole  human  race,  and  British  India  comprises 
about  three-fourths  of  the  population  of  the  British  Em¬ 
pire  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  America  and  Australia, 
taken  together.  India’s  population,  three  times  that  of 
the  United  States,  is  crowded  into  an  area  about  half  as 
large.  The  average  density  in  India  is  177  persons  to  the 
square  mile,  as  compared  with  the  density  of  42  persons 
in  the  United  States  proper.  India  comprises,  besides 
British  India,  also  the  exceedingly  small  French  and 
Portuguese  Possessions  of  203  and  1,403  square  miles 
respectively.  While  the  native  or  Indian  States  and  Agen¬ 
cies  cover  only  an  area  of  709,583  square  miles  and  have  a 
population  of  71,936,736,  the  British  Provinces  cover 
1,093,074  square  miles  with  a  population  of  247,138,396 
inhabitants.3 

Mountains . — The  Himalaya,  Hindu  Kush  and  Kara¬ 
koram  Mountains  tower  in  the  north  and  form  a  natural 
barrier  against  any  enemy  advancing  from  that  direction. 

2  Whitaker’s  Almanac,  London,  1922,  p.  603. 

3  Idem,  pp.  G03,  610-612. 


THE  COUNTRY 


5 


The  Himalayas  are  awe-inspiring.  They  are  the  silent 
sentinels  of  the  north  keeping  strict  watch  over  the  low¬ 
lands.  Their  snow-tipped  summits  remind  the  traveler  of 
the  white-crested  helmets  of  the  medieval  warrior.  Be¬ 
sides  forming  a  double  wall  along  the  north  of  India,  the 
Himalayas  stretch  southward  on  the  east  and  west,  thus 
protecting  the  northeastern  and  northwestern  frontiers. 
It  is  a  tiresome  and  difficult  task  to  cross  these  mountains. 
One  can  do  so  safely  only  by  means  of  the  passes  which 
laboriously  wind  their  way  over  these  steep  ascents.  Few 
of  these  passes  are  under  1,600  or  1,700  feet.  The  mer¬ 
chant,  explorer  and  missionary  find  safe  passage  over 
these  snowy  heights,  but  a  modern  army  could  never  cross 
them.  The  peaks  of  the  Himalayas  are  among  the  highest 
in  the  world.  Their  average  elevation  is  not  less  than 
19,000  feet.  Mount  Everest  has  the  greatest  altitude. 
Its  summit  is  29,009  feet,  or  five  and  a  half  miles  above 
sea  level.  Viewing  the  western  part  of  the  peninsula, 
we  find  it  high,  sloping  gradually  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal 
in  the  east.  The  Eastern  and  Western  Ghats  run  along 
the  eastern  and  western  coasts,  rising  and  falling  as  the 
billows  of  the  ocean.  The  mountain  ranges  of  India 
are,  for  the  greater  part,  composed  of  granite  and  granitic 
rocks.  In  the  Himalayas  gneiss  predominates,  while  in 
the  southeastern  section  of  the  land  syenite  prevails.  We 
now  turn  to  India’s  waterways. 

River  Systems  and  River  Plains. — These  play  no  in¬ 
significant  role  in  the  peninsula.  The  fertility  of  the 
soil  corresponds  to  the  natural  and  artificial  supply  of 
water.  The  rains,  rivers  and  irrigation  systems  of  North¬ 
ern  India  make  this  the  richest  and,  therefore,  the  most 
densely  populated  portion  of  the  Empire.  The  largest 
supply  of  water  comes  from  the  Himalayas.  The  wide 
plains  watered  by  the  mountain  rivers  extend  from  the 
Bay  of  Bengal  to  the  Arabian  Sea.  The  Indus  and  Sutlej 
take  their  rise  beyond  the  Himalayas,  issue  through  their 
western  ranges  and  flow  down  upon  the  Punjab.  The 


6 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


Brahmaputra  also  has  its  source  beyond  the  Himalayas, 
near  that  of  the  Indus ;  flowing,  however,  in  the  opposite 
direction  it  enters  India  at  its  most  eastern  point.  While 
the  Brahmaputra  gathers  the  drainage  from  the  northern 
slopes  of  the  Himalayas,  the  mighty  Ganges  is  formed  by 
the  waters  descending  from  the  southern  slopes.  Hence, 
practically  all  the  waters  of  these  mountains  are  poured 
down  into  the  river  plains  of  Bengal. 

Climate . — People  are  always  much  concerned  about  the 
climate  of  the  countries  they  wish  to  visit  and  tour.  India 
offers  a  great  variety  in  this  respect.  Within  its 
boundaries  may  be  found  almost  any  extreme  of  climate 
experienced  either  in  the  tropic  or  temperate  zones.  On 
the  whole  it  is  dry  and  rainless  for  two-thirds  of  the 
year.  In  the  north  continental  climate  prevails,  while  in 
the  south  it  is  oceanic.  Frequent  land  winds  sweep  the 
north.  Other  characteristics  of  this  region  are  great  dry¬ 
ness  of  air,  and  a  large  diurnal  range  of  temperature, 
with  little  or  no  precipitation.  In  the  south  climatic  con¬ 
ditions  are  quite  the  opposite;  here  the  temperature  is 
more  uniform,  the  range  of  the  thermometer  during  the 
day  small,  and  the  air  damp. 

Monsoon  Periods ,  Rain. — When  speaking  of  India  one 
may  not  overlook  the  monsoon  periods.  The  dry  season 
is  called  the  northeast  monsoon;  the  rainy  season,  the 
southwest  monsoon.  The  rainy  season  sets  in  during  the 
first  weeks  of  J une,  and  throughout  the  next  three  months 
rain  is,  in  general,  the  order  for  India.  The  rain  is  car¬ 
ried  on  to  the  land  by  the  sea  breeze.  The  amount  of 
rainfall  varies  greatly  for  different  localities.  The  Indus 
Plain  is  rarely  refreshed  by  a  light  rain.  There  have 
been  some  years  in  which  not  a  drop  of  rain  fell  on  the 
parched  soil.  While  this  plain  suffers  from  drought,  other 
places  have  an  overabundance  of  rainfall.  At  Cherra- 
punji,  in  the  Khasi  Hills,  an  annual  rainfall  of  from  300 
to  500  inches  has  been  registered.  The  months  of  Novem¬ 
ber  and  December  are  the  so-called  retreating  monsoon 


THE  COUNTRY  7 

period.  They  form  a  transition  from  the  rainy  to  the 
cold  season. 

Cold  and  Heat. — The  months  of  January  and  February 
constitute  the  cold  season.  During  this  time  the  mean 
temperature  in  the  Punjab  and  the  United  Provinces  is 
approximately  thirty  degrees,  lower  than  in  Southern 
India.  Ice  and  snow  are  found  only  in  the  high  altitudes. 
In  the  north  the  sky  is  cloudless  throughout  this  season, 
the  weather,  cool  and  dry.  On  the  southwestern  coast 
it  is  warmer  than  on  the  southeastern.  The  hot  weather 
gives  more  annoyance  to  the  tourist  than  does  the  cold. 
Beginning  in  the  Punjab  on  the  15th  of  March  the  ther¬ 
mometer  ascends  gradually  but  steadily  until  the  coming 
of  the  rain  in  June.  When  the  thermometer  reaches  the 
120  and  125  degree  mark,  in  the  shade,  as  it  does  at 
Jacobabad  in  the  northwest,  the  fiery  rays  of  the  sun  fairly 
bake  the  earth.  The  Deccan  and  Central  Provinces  lie 
for  the  greater  part  within  the  hottest  area.4 

Irrigation. — During  this  season  there  is  no  outlook 
whatsoever  for  crops  where  irrigation  is  not  used  as  a 
means  of  watering  the  dry  and  cracked  soil.  The  lack 
of  rain  is  greatly  provided  against  by  the  government  sys¬ 
tem  of  rivers  and  irrigating  canals.  The  extent  of  this 
system  may  be  judged  from  one  example:  The  main 
arteries  of  the  Sirhind  Canal  in  the  Punjab  are  543  miles 
in  length,  and  its  tributaries  aggregate  4,462  miles.  The 
irrigating  canals  receive  much  of  their  water  from  the 
rivers,  from  which  it  is  conducted  by  ditches.  The  great 
rivers  of  the  north  have  sufficient  water  for  extending  still 
farther  these  irrigating  schemes.  Besides  irrigating 
canals,  tanks  and  wells  are  used  extensively  for  supply¬ 
ing  water.  In  Madras  and  Bombay  all  the  irrigation  sys¬ 
tems  are  dependent  on  reservoirs.  The  total  area  of  crops 
irrigated  from  the  Lahore  District  alone  in  1917-18  was 
1,440,769  acres.  During  1919-20  the  total  number  of 
acres  under  irrigation  in  India,  excluding  the  areas  ir- 
4  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  Vol.  XIV,  1910,  p.  379. 


8  INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 

rigated  in  the  Indian  States,  amounted  to  over 
28,000,000.5 

Plagues. — Aside  from  these  natural  and  ever  recurring 
difficulties  under  which  the  native  of  India  must  labor, 
there  are  other  serious  disadvantages  with  which  he  must 
contend.  While  the  rainy  period  holds  sway,  North¬ 
western  India  is  visited  frequently  by  terrific  storms  which 
often  terminate  in  most  destructive  cyclones.  They  come 
up  unexpectedly,  sweep  over  a  section  of  the  land  and  in  a 
few  hours  leave  nothing  hut  ruin  in  their  wake.  The 
most  terrific  cyclone  history  records  is  the  Baker-ganj 
Cyclone  of  1876;  150,000  acres  of  land  were  swamped 
and  2,000,000  inhabitants  lost  their  lives.  Following  close 
on  the  heels  of  the  wet  season,  when  the  atmosphere  is 
damp  and  hot,  comes  that  most  dreaded  disease,  malaria. 
Yearly  this  deadly  fever  chums  a  goodly  number  of  the 
natives  as  victims.  Northern  India,  the  alluvial  plains  and 
the  lowlands  are  veritable  hotbeds  of  this  plague.  In  the 
British  army  in  India  during  the  year  1897,  out  of  a 
total  strength  of  178,197  men,  no  less  than  75,821  were 
laid  low  with  malarial  fever.  There  were  over  7,000,000 
deaths  from  influenza  during  1918.  The  reported  deaths 
in  1919  numbered  8,554,178  of  which  cholera  accounted 
for  578,426;  plague,  74,284;  dysentery  and  diarrhea, 
291,643.  The  country  has  also  been  visited  by  earth¬ 
quakes.  Severe  earthquakes  have  taken  place  around 
Mandalay  and  the  hill  country  to  the  north.  Ava,  in 
Upper  Burma,  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1839. 

Profiteering. — Regarding  the  evils  of  India,  Ernest  B. 
Hull,  S.J.,  an  authority  well  qualified  to  speak  on  that 
country,  has  this  to  say :  “The  really  serious  evils  of  India 
as  felt  by  the  masses  are  three  in  number.  The  first 
is  the  artificial  creation  of  famines.  The  constant  recur¬ 
rence  of  famine  in  India  is  not  due  to  local  scarcity  of 
food ;  .  .  .  the  cause  of  famine  is  due  simply  to  the  com¬ 
bination  of  the  native  grain  dealers,  who  buy  up  the  sup- 

6  Catholic  Encyclopedia ,  Supplement  I,  Vol.  XVII,  1922,  p.  395. 


This  Upland  Lake  Supplies  the  Parched  Lowlands  with  Water. 


THE  COUNTRY 


9 


plies  and  establish  famine  prices  as  soon  as  the  first  sign 
of  scarcity  is  observed.  All  other  explanations  of  famine 
in  India  are  either  false  or  inadequate  and  negligible. 
.  .  .  The  second  evil  is  the  extraordinary  usury  practiced 
by  the  native  Marwaris  or  money  lenders,  who  have  the 
people  at  their  mercy  in  times  of  stress,  and  who  carry 
on  their  business  in  such  a  way  that  getting  into  their 
hands  usually  means  total  ruin.  .  .  .  The  third  evil  in 
India  is  petty  tyranny,  extortion,  and  corruption  on  the 
part  of  subordinate  native  officials.”  6  As  usual,  it  is 
the  middle  and  lower  class  of  people  that  chafe  and  smart 
under  these  crying  evils  of  the  land.  Their  removal  would 
spell  greater  prosperity  and  happiness  for  the  whole 
country. 

Flora. — We  shall  now  take  a  look  at  India’s  flora. 
The  country  has  no  botanical  features  peculiar  to  itself. 
In  India  adjoining  floras  meet  and  blend.  In  the  north 
and  northeast  we  find  the  columbine,  hawthorn,  Magnolia, 
Aucuba,  Abelia,  Pinus  longifolia,  Pinus  excelsa,  yew, 
deodar  and  holm  oak.  Dense  forests  of  Abies  webbiana 
grow  at  an  altitude  of  8,000  to  12,000  feet.  In  the  north¬ 
west,  where  the  climate  is  dry,  the  flora  is  poor.  In  the 
west  and  south,  genera  such  as  Sida  and  Indigofera  thrive. 
Borassus,  the  coconut  and  banana  are  cultivated.  Palms 
are  scanty.  The  lemon,  orange  and  cinnamon  trees  are 
also  found.  The  tun  and  sal  are  the  most  important  timber 
trees.  Satinwood,  sandalwood,  ironwood  and  teak  are 
also  present.  In  the  Western  Ghats  the  forests  are  dense, 
but,  on  the  whole,  they  cannot  compare  with  the  forests 
of  our  own  country,  e.g.,  the  redwood  forests  of  California 
and  the  national  forests  of  our  western  and  northern 
states. 

Fauna. — Par  richer,  however,  than  in  our  own  country 
is  the  animal  world  of  India.  Among  the  wild  animals 
the  lion  takes  the  first  place.  The  tiger  is  at  home  in 
every  part  of  the  country,  and  there  are  no  prospects 
8  Catholic  Encyclopedia ,  Vol.  VII,  p.  727. 


10 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


that  this  beast  of  prey  will  ever  be  exterminated.  The 
damage  done  by  these  animals  is  almost  incredible.  Single 
tigers  have  killed  as  many  as  eighty  persons  in  one  year. 
One  caused  the  natives  to  abandon  thirteen  villages  and 
threw  358  square  miles  of  land  out  of  cultivation.  In 
1903  alone  866  persons  were  killed.7  The  leopard,  ever 
as  destructive  as  the  tiger,  is  still  more  common.  The 
wolf  and  dog  tribe  are  numerously  represented.  Other 
wild  animals  are  the  bear,  elephant,  rhinoceros,  wild  hog, 
wild  ass,  sheep  and  goat,  antelope,  deer,  bison  and  buffalo. 
The  rat  and  mouse  family  is  only  too  numerous,  as  tour¬ 
ists  well  know. 

Birds,  Reptiles ,  Fishes. — Of  birds,  India  claims  many 
splendid  and  curious  varieties.  The  parrot  tribe  is  the 
most  beautiful ;  the  mina,  the  most  popular.  Among 
the  birds  of  prey  there  are  vultures,  eagles,  falcons  and 
hawks.  Kingfishers  and  herons  are  noted  for  their  rich 
plumage.  Waterfowl  are  plentiful.  The  florican,  snipe, 
pigeon,  partridge,  quail,  duck,  sheldrake  and  teal  make 
up  the  list  of  game  birds.  The  serpent  tribe  is  also 
abundant,  entering  the  gardens  and  even  the  dwellings. 
All  salt-water  snakes  are  poisonous,  whereas  those  that 
live  in  fresh  water  are  not.  The  most  dreaded  are  the 
cobra  de  capello  and  the  Russelian  snake.  Their  bite  is, 
with  few  exceptions,  followed  by  a  speedy  death.  Over 
20,000  people  were  killed  by  snakes  in  1919.  There  are 
two  species  of  crocodiles  and  many  scorpions.  The  sea, 
the  rivers  and  streams  fairly  teem  with  fishes.  They  con¬ 
stitute  a  goodly  portion  of  the  food  of  the  poorer  classes 
and  are  eaten  fresh.  Carp  and  catfish  are  the  most  com¬ 
mon,  while  mahseer  and  hilsa  are  the  most  delicious. 

Insects. — The  insect  tribes  are  innumerable,  mainly  on 
account  of  the  heat  and  rains.  The  mosquitoes,  moths  and 
ants,  besides  being  very  troublesome,  do  untold  damage. 
Of  great  use  are  the  silkworm,  bee  and  silk-producing 
insect.  Locusts,  from  three  to  five  inches  in  length,  sweep 

7  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  Vol.  XIV,  p.  380. 


THE  COUNTRY  11 

over  the  country  in  clouds  and  turn  the  green  meadows 
into  barren  deserts. 

Mineral  Resources. — So  far  we  have  been  wandering 
about  in  India  as  tourists,  viewing  things  as  we  met 
them.  We  shall  now  consider  what  the  country  has  to 
show  in  mineral  resources.  The  chief  mining  resources 
of  India  are  the  salt,  coal  and  gold  mines,  the  petroleum 
oil  fields,  the  ruby  and  mica  mines  in  Bengal  and  the  tin 
ores  and  jade  of  Burma.  Copper  ore,  gypsum,  plumbago 
and  alum  also  exist.  Coal  is  found  in  almost  every  native 
state  or  province.  Bengal  lays  claim  to  the  best  mines, 
which  furnish  seven-eighths  of  the  annual  returns.  Assam 
and  the  Central  Provinces  are  also  rich  in  mines.  The 
chief  gold  fields  are  the  Kolar  Fields  in  Mysore,  whose 
output  represents  ninety-nine  per  cent  of  the  whole  yield. 
There  are  other  mines,  but  they  produce  only  very  small 
amounts.  Iron  ore  abounds  in  India,  every  hill  has  its 
deposits.  Burma  is  the  site  of  India’s  rich  oil  fields 
and  furnishes  ninety-eight  per  cent  of  the  total  product. 
Assam  supplies  the  rest.  Valuable  manganese  deposits 
are  found  on  the  Madras  Coast  and  in  the  Central  Prov¬ 
inces.  Mica,  tin,  copper  and  plumbago  appear  in  greater 
or  lesser  quantities  in  various  districts.  India  is  not, 
as  is  often  stated,  rich  in  precious  stones.  The  search 
for  diamonds  is  scarcely  worth  the  labor.  To-day  only 
the  rubies  and  jade  of  Burma  form  an  important  in¬ 
dustry. 

Commerce  and  Industry. — Looking  at  the  commercial 
and  industrial  efforts  of  the  country,  we  see  that  the  in¬ 
dustry  is  almost  solely  monopolized  by  agriculture.  It  is 
the  industry  of  India.  Generally  speaking,  about  seventy- 
two  per  cent  of  the  population  are  employed  in  agricul¬ 
tural  pursuits.  Even  in  towns  of  considerable  size  one 
generally  finds  a  good-sized  garden  (if  so  we  may  call  it) 
attached  to  the  home.  The  business  man  as  well  as  the 
trader  has  his  own  little  plot  of  land  which  supplies  him 
with  the  necessary  grain  for  his  family.  Wheat  has  be- 


12 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


come  a  great  factor  in  India  within  the  last  few  decades. 
The  north,  and  primarily  the  Punjab,  may  be  said  to  be 
one  endless  field  of  wheat.  Rice  is  not  met  with  so  fre¬ 
quently  as  is  often  erroneously  believed,  but  wherever  it 
does  occur,  it  is  grown  exclusively.  Rice  export  is  with¬ 
out  doubt  an  important  industry.  Burma,  Bengal  and 
Madras  are  the  principal  centers.  The  staple  food  grain 
of  the  country  is  millet,  of  which  there  are  various  kinds. 
Millions  and  millions  of  acres  are  planted  to  this  grain. 
The  reason  why  this  grain  is  cultivated  so  extensively 
and  in  preference  to  all  others  may  be  found  in  this,  that 
it  can  be  planted  and  thrives  on  unirrigated  land.  In 
years  of  drought  it  averages  three-fourths  of  the  grain 
crop.  Being  a  favorite  food  among  the  inhabitants,  the 
crop  is  almost  entirely  consumed  in  India.  Very  little 
is  exported.  Gram  is  eaten  by  the  poorer  classes.  Oil¬ 
seeds  are  also  cultivated  extensively,  and  although  the 
Indian  uses  oil  for  many  purposes,  the  amount  of  oil  and 
oilseeds  exported  to  Europe  is  enormous.  Favorite  native 
vegetables  are  the  eggplant,  cauliflower,  radish,  yam,  onion, 
garlic,  potato,  cabbage  and  turnip.  The  last  three  have 
been  introduced  but  recently. 

Among  fruits  we  may  mention  the  mango,  pineapple, 
pomegranate,  tamarind,  custard  apple,  papaw,  fig,  orange, 
melon  and  citron.  Spices,  tea,  coffee  and  cinchona  are 
cultivated  to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent,  and  are  taking  the 
place  of  the  once  so  important  trade  in  indigo.  At  present, 
the  indigo  business  is  almost  at  a  standstill,  whilst-  Canada, 
Russia,  Australia,  Persia  and  the  United  States  are  great 
markets  for  Indian  teas. 

Manufactures. — We  have  said  that  agriculture  takes 
the  lead  in  Indian  industries.  This  does  not  mean  to  say 
that  other  industries  are  neglected.  Next  to  agriculture 
weaving  is  most  widely  practiced.  The  cotton,  jute  and 
silk  industries  give  employment  to  vast  numbers.  Look¬ 
ing  at  the  list  of  India’s  factories  and  mills,  we  find,  be¬ 
sides  the  carpet,  cotton,  jute  and  silk  mills,  indigo,  tile 


THE  COUNTRY 


13 


and  lac  factories,  coffee  works,  iron  and  brass  foundries, 
rice,  timber,  oil  and  paper  mills,  and,  finally,  potteries. 

Trade. — Indian  trade  with  foreign  countries  is  carried 
on  by  land  and  sea.  Until  recent  times  the  land  trade 
represented  but  a  very  small  per  cent  of  India’s  commer¬ 
cial  enterprise;  just  now  it  is  improving  and  the  future 
outlook  is  good.  By  far  the  greater  amount  of  trade  is 
carried  on  by  sea  through  the  four  main  ports  of  Cal¬ 
cutta,  Bombay,  Karachi  and  Rangoon.  Native  trade  has 
been  considerably  improved  by  the  railroads. 

Railway  Systems. — Railway  construction  in  India  be¬ 
gan  about  1853,  but  the  development  was  rather  slow 
until  recent  years.  To-day  the  railroads  form  a  network 
which  stretches  over  the  entire  land,  aggregating  the  sum 
total  of  36,286  miles  of  track;  about  5,000  more  miles 
than  the  railroads  of  France  and  30,000  more  than  those 
of  China.  The  railway  system  has  greatly  increased  the 
commerce  of  the.  country.  At  present  India’s  commerce 
is  about  five  times  as  great  as  when  its  railway  system 
first  began.  It  is  mainly  due  to  the  railroads,  which  keep 
the  grain  moving,  that  many  out-of-the-way  districts  are 
protected  against  famine.  The  Northwestern  Railway 
System  is  the  largest,  comprising  and  exercising  admin¬ 
istrative  control  over  no  less  than  seventeen  lines  exclu¬ 
sive  of  the  parent  line.  The  visitor  to  India  will  find 
railroad  accommodations  fairly  good.  lie  will  be  able  to 
reach  all  of  the  chief  business  centers,  and  practically  all 
places  of  interest  by  rail. 


COPYRIGHT,  1916,  BY  THfc  U.  N.  MATThtWS  CO.,  BUFFALO, 


CHAPTER  II 

POLITICAL  HISTORY 


I.  Early  Development  ( ?  b.c.-1000  a.d.) 

Aborigines . — Drawing  aside  the  curtain  from  the  past 
of  India  a  crowded  stage  meets  onr  view.  There  are  the 
English,  the  Portuguese,  the  Moguls  and,  in  the  back¬ 
ground,  the  aboriginal  tribes.  The  latter  are  a  dark- 
skinned  race  who  have  left  few  relics  but  their  tombs  and 
who  inhabited  the  land  at  the  time  of  the  Aryan  invasion 
prior  to  2000  b.c. 

The  Aryans. — These  Aryan  invaders  came  from  the 
shores  of  the  Oxus  and  the  Jaxartes  Rivers  beyond  the 
Hindu  Kush  Mountain  Range.  Their  main  occupation 
was  the  raising  of  cattle  which  amply  supplied  them  with 
food  and  clothing.  Our  chief  source  of  knowledge  of 
these  Aryans  is  to  be  had  from  their  sacred  writings,  the 
Vedas ,  which  depict  them  as  a  morally  clean  and  reli¬ 
gious,  although  war-loving  people.  After  many  years 
spent  in  the  shedding  of  human  blood  this  people  became 
the  sole  possessors  of  the  Indus  Valley.  But  not  content 
with  their  success  in  the  Punjab  they  pushed  on  behind 
their  retreating  foe  and  by  1300  b.c.  also  brought  most 
of  the  Ganges  Valley  under  their  control.  The  Vedas 
give  us  little  valuable  information  regarding  this  period, 
but  we  are  happy  in  finding  a  large  store  of  such  lore  in 
the  two  great  epics  of  India  which  describe  this  time, 
namely,  the  Mahabharata  and  the  Ramayana.  They 
inform  us  that  a  great  change  was  wrought  among  the 
Aryans.  Agriculture  was  the  chief  occupation;  the  caste 

15 


16 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


system  had  been  introduced;  offering  sacrifice  to  the  gods 
was  no  longer  the  office  of  the  chief,  but  was  restricted  to 
a  certain  class — the  Brahmans.  These  grew  daily  in 
power  and  it  became  their  ambition  not  to  be  kings,  but 
to  rule  kings.  After  several  centuries  they  realized  their 
ambition  and  were  looked  upon  by  the  lower  castes  prac¬ 
tically  as  gods  and  no  one  dared  do  them  harm. 

Buddhistic  Pernod. — These  conditions  prevailed  during 
several  centuries.  In  the  meantime  also  the  Ganges  Val¬ 
ley  proved  too  small  for  the  Aryans  and  so  they  spread 
to  the  east  and  south,  founding  independent  states  as  they 
proceeded,  the  greatest  of  which  was  Magadha.  It  was 
near  Kadjagriah,  the  early  capital  of  this  state,  that  Gau¬ 
tama  (560-480  b.c.),  commonly  called  Buddha,  i.e .,  the 
“enlightened  one/’  began  his  career.  The  movement  he 
headed,  it  is  true,  was  chiefly  religious  and  as  such  will  be 
treated  in  a  later  chapter,  but  it  was  also  political.  It  did 
away  with  the  selfishness  of  the  Brahmans  and  one  of  its 
foremost  characteristics  was  love  of  one’s  neighbor.  These 
and  similar  facts  influenced  the  actions  not  only  of  the 
common  people  but  to  a  great  extent  also  those  of  the 
ruling  class  and  are  in  so  far  of  political  importance. 

Various  Invasions. — From  time  immemorial  India  with 
its  fruitful  valleys  and  plains  has  been  a  special  attrac¬ 
tion  for  the  people  of  other  lands.  We  have  mentioned 
the  Aryans  as  the  first  known  invaders  of  this  land  of 
promise;  but  they  were  by  no  means  the  last.  Cyrus, 
King  of  Persia  (559—530  b.c.),  is  said  to  have  sent  an 
expedition  to  India,  but  with  no  success.  In  the  time  of 
Darius  (521-485  b.c.)  the  tribes  north  of  the  Kabul  and 
west  of  the  Indus  were  subdued  and  formed  into  a  Per¬ 
sian  satrapy.  The  greatest  of  the  early  invaders,  however, 
was  Alexander  the  Great.  He  began  his  march  from 
Bactria  to  India  in  the  spring  of  327  b.c.,  but  owing  to 
unexpected  resistance  reached  the  shores  of  the  Indus  only 
in  the  spring  of  the  following  year.  He  defeated  Porus, 
a  king  of  the  frontier,  and  penetrated  as  far  as  the  Hy- 


Courthouse  Street,  Calcutta, 


POLITICAL  HISTORY 


17 


phasis  River.  But  here  his  success  ended,  due  to  the 
mutiny  that  broke  out  in  his  army  and  which  forced  him 
to  return.  Alexander’s  expedition  to  India,  it  is  true, 
was  of  short  duration,  but  its  influence  continued  through 
many  centuries.  It  was  due  to  this  expedition  that  Greek 
ideas  and  culture  were  carried  so  far  east,  and  these  facts 
played  a  great  role  in  the  subsequent  history  of  India. 
After  Alexander’s  death  his  empire  was  divided  among 
his  generals  and  Seleucus  Nicator  received  Bactria  and 
the  Indian  Provinces.  He  attempted  a  conquest  of  the 
lands  beyond  the  Indus  River  (303  b.c.),  but  thereby  be¬ 
came  involved  in  a  war  with  Chandragupta  of  Magadha, 
the  founder  of  the  Maurya  Dynasty  (321  b.c.).  Seleucus, 
seeing  the  power  of  his  adversary,  preferred  to  ally  himself 
with  him  rather  than  oppose  him.  At  the  death  of  Chan¬ 
dragupta  his  empire  comprised  all  of  Northern  India. 
In  Asoka  (269-232  b.c.)  the  Maurya  Dynasty  reached 
its  climax  and  Buddhism  won  a  devoted  patron.  His 
success  may  be  traced  to  his  deep-rooted  sense  of  duty 
which  showed  itself  in  all  his  actions.  He  despised  pleas¬ 
ure  and  honor  and  condemned  the  immoral  practices  of 
his  age.  In  his  earlier  years  he  was  so  moved  to  compas¬ 
sion  by  the  sufferings  of  a  conquered  people  that  he  made 
it  his  point  never  to  wage  war.  He  was  beloved  of  his 
subjects  and  his  main  object  was  to  work  for  the  common 
welfare.  After  his  death  the  Maurya  Dynasty  began  to 
decline  and  the  last  of  this  house  was  finally  assassinated 
in  184  a.d. 

Period  of  Historical  Deficiency. — From  this  time  until 
the  eleventh  century  of  the  Christian  era  Indian  history 
reminds  one  of  a  mosaic,  as  a  modern  historian  expresses 
it,  which  has  lost  all  but  a  few  groups  of  its  particles. 
The  various  coins  and  inscriptions,  however,  as  also  the 
diverse  reports  of  the  foreign  travelers  of  that  time  (espe¬ 
cially  Hsuan  Tsang  of  China  in  the  seventh  century  a.d.) 
show  that  it  was  a  period  of  alternate  unrests  and  political 
formations.  Among  the  earliest  celebrated  rulers  of  this 


18 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


time  is  Kaniska  of  the  Kushan  Dynasty,  who  reigned  in 
the  northwest  about  120  A.D.1  He  gained  renown  as  a 
monarch,  hut  particularly  as  a  Buddhistic  enthusiast. 
Another  influential  leader  of  this  epoch  is  Gupta,  a  vassal 
of  Magadha.  He  proclaimed  his  independence  about 
290  a.d.  and  by  means  of  a  successful  rebellion  founded 
a  new  kingdom  which  under  his  immediate  successor  at¬ 
tained  to  great  power  and  included  all  of  Northeastern 
India.  This  kingdom  endured  for  several  centuries,  but 
in  515  a.d.  it  was  attacked  by  the  White  Huns  from  the 
north.  Although  they  were  finally  repulsed  (530  a.d.) 
by  Yasodharma,  a  vassal  of  the  Gupta  Kingdom,  still 
the  reigning  dynasty  was  doomed  and  the  Kingdom  of 
Gupta  went  over  into  the  hands  of  her  valiant  defender. 
The  next  ruler  of  importance  in  Northern  India  is  Harsha 
(606-648  a.d.  ) .  It  was  his  aim  to  bring  all  India  under 
his  sway.  He  succeeded  in  the  north,  but  was  repulsed 
in  the  Deccan  by  Pulikesin  II.,  a  member  of  the  newly 
founded  (620  a.d.)  Chalukya  Dynasty.  During  the  next 
few  centuries  India’s  history  offers  nothing  of  great  im¬ 
portance.  The  various  tribes  continued  in  their  strife  for 
leadership,  their  characteristic  faults  being  jealousy  and 
ambition,  and  these  prepared  the  way  for  the  Mohamme¬ 
dan  invasion. 

II.  Mohammedan  Period  (1001-1740  a.d.) 

Mohammedan  Conquests. — While  Buddhism  in  the 
seventh  century  a.d.  was  nearing  its  end  in  India,  a  new 
religion  was  springing  up  at  Mecca  which  later  on  was  to 
influence  India  for  over  700  years.  This  religion  is 
commonly  called  Islam  or  Mohammedanism  and  proved 
to  he  also  a  great  political  power.  Even  during  the  life¬ 
time  of  Mohammed,  the  founder,  its  territorial  conquests 
extended  from  the  Euphrates  to  Mocha,  from  the  Persian 
Gulf  to  the  Red  Sea.  In  664  a.d.  the  Mohammedans  at- 

xThe  date  of  his  reign  is  uncertain:  some  authorities  place  it  at 
58  b.c.,  others  at  120  a.d.,  and  still  others  as  late  as  278  a.d. 


POLITICAL  HISTORY 


19 


tempted  to  conquer  India  and  in  711  a.d.  actually  sub¬ 
dued  Sind,  but  were  again  driven  out  by  the  Hindus,  750 
a.d.  India  now  enjoyed  peace  until  1001  a.d.,  when  the 
Afghan  Sultan,  Mahmud  of  Ghazni,  began  his  invasions. 
He  made  seventeen  expeditions  into  India,  and  at  his 
death  (1030  a.d.)  his  Indian  possessions  comprised  the 
modern  Punjab,  Sind  and  Western  Raj  put  ana.  But  his 
successors  were  not  capable  rulers,  and,  finally,  in  1186 
a.d.,  this  dynasty  was  supplanted  by  the  House  of  Ghor, 
which  reigned  during  twenty  years  (1186—1206)  and 
extended  Mohammedan,  rule*  in  India  as  far  east  as 
Benares.  Mohammed  Ghori,  the  last  of  this  line,  gov¬ 
erned  India  through  his  favorite  slave,  Kutb-ud-in.  Upon 
the  death  of  Mohammed  Ghori  this  slave  proclaimed  him¬ 
self  Sultan  of  Delhi  thus  founding  the  Slave  Dynasty  or 
the  Dynasty  of  the  Mamelukes  (1206—1290  a.d.).  This 
dynasty  was  followed  by  the  House  of  Khildji  (1290- 
1321)  and  during  this  period  most  of  the  Hindu  States 
of  the  Deccan  were  brought  under  Mohammedan  control. 
During  the  next  two  centuries  three  dynasties  were  in 
power,  i.e.,  the  Togluk  (1321—1412),  the  Sayyid  (1414— 
1451)  and  the  Lodhi  (1451—1526)  ;  but  owing  to  their 
imprudent  rulers  India  became  a  land  of  dissatisfaction 
and  revolt.  Goaded  on  by  these  circumstances  Baber,  a 
Mogul  from  the  north,  invaded  India  in  1526  a.d.  and 
gained  a  permanent  footing. 

Empire  of  the  Great  Mogul. — A  new  period  of  Mo¬ 
hammedan  rule  now  opened  for  India.  Hitherto  it  had 
been  an  epoch  of  continual  unrest  and  change.  One 
dynasty  arose  only  to  be  subdued  by  another.  The  period 
now  opening,  however,  possessed  greater  stability,  for 
the  members  of  one  family  kept  in  power  for  over  three 
hundred  years.  The  greatest  ruler  of  this  Mogul  Dynasty 
was  Akbar  the  Great  (1556—1605).  He  is  sometimes 
termed  “the  greatest  monarch  in  the  world  at  that  time.’7  2 

3  Rev.  Fr.  Felix,  O.  M.  Cap.,  Mughal  Farmans,  Panoanahs  and 
Sanads,  p.  2. 


20 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


He  brought  under  his  scepter  “a  larger  portion  of  India 
than  had  ever  before  acknowledged  the  sway  of  one  man.” 
His  empire  extended  from  Afghanistan  to  Orissa,  from 
the  Himalayas  to  beyond  the  Nerbada  River  including 
Berar.  He  was  truly  great  in  his  conquests,  but  greater 
still  in  his  dealings  with  men.  The  conquered  he  treated 
as  human  beings ;  he  tolerated  the  different  religions  and 
races;  he  abolished  the  head  tax  on  heretics  (non-Moham¬ 
medans)  and  even  admitted  Hindus  to  public  offices. 
During  the  reign  of  Aurangzeb  (1658—1707  a.d.)  Mo¬ 
hammedan  rule  extended  to  the  southern  extremities  of 
the  Peninsula,  but  after  his  death  the  vast  empire  quickly 
fell  to  pieces  and  the  Mogul  Dynasty  was  practically  at 
an  end,  although  it  ruled  nominally  until  1858. 

III.  Europeans  in  India  (1498-1922) 

The  Portuguese . — Of  all  countries  of  Europe  Portugal 
was  the  first  to  find  a  waterway  to  India.  This  was 
accomplished  when  Vasco  da  Gama  sailed  around  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  landed  on  the  Malabar  Coast  in 
1498.  At  first  the  Mohammedans  of  India  strongly  op¬ 
posed  the  plans  of  the  Portuguese,  but  by  the  valor  and 
persistency  of  their  leaders,  especially  of  Albuquerque, 
trading  posts  were  soon  established  on  the  mainland. 
By  the  end  of  the  following  century  we  find  Portuguese 
settlements  on  the  eastern  and  western  coasts,  and  even 
in  Bengal  and  Ceylon.  But  during  the  union  of  Spain 
and  Portugal  (1580—1640)  affairs  in  the  East  were 
neglected  and  this  fact,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  was  of 
great  advantage  to  the  Dutch  and  English.  To-day  the 
Portuguese  Possessions  in  India  comprise  Goa,  Damaun 
and  Diu,  having  a  total  area  of  1,403  square  miles.  The 
inhabitants  of  Portuguese  India  in  1900  amounted  to 
531,798. 

The  Dutch. — Towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century 
the  Dutch  were  not  on  friendly  terms  with  the  Portuguese 


POLITICAL  HISTORY 


21 


and  being  thus  deprived  of  the  only  practical  means  then 
existing  of  getting  spices  from  the  East,  finally  determined 
to  open  trade  directly  with  the  Spice  Islands.  At  first 
they  attempted  to  find  a  passage  round  the  north  coast 
of  Europe,  but  this  proving  unsuccessful,  they  followed 
the  Portuguese  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  reached 
India  in  1596.  They  gained  in  power  and  soon  the  much 
neglected  Portuguese  settlements  were  also  under  their 
domination.  By  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century 
the  Dutch  were  supreme  in  Asiatic  waters.  But  Holland 
also  received  her  deathblow  when  the  English  Parliament 
passed  the  Navigation  Act  (1651)  forbidding  mainly  the 
importation  of  merchandise  into  England  except  in  Eng¬ 
lish  ships.  Erom  this  time  dates  the  decline  of  Holland’s 
power  both  at  home  and  abroad.  To-day  the  flag  of  Hol¬ 
land  waves  nowhere  on  the  mainland  of  India.3 

The  Danes. — The  Danes  first  reached  India  in  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Their  colonies  never 
attained  great  importance,  but  still  they  continued  under 
Danish  rule  until  1845,  when  they  were  sold  to  England. 

The  Germans. — The  Germans  were  comparatively  late 
(1723)  in  sending  trading  companies  to  the  Ear  East. 
The  Ostend  Company  once  established,  however,  threat¬ 
ened  to  become  even  a  rival  for  the  other  European  powers 
in  India.  But  the  jealousies  of  these  powers,  combined 
with  unlooked-for  opposition  from  the  Fatherland,  caused 
the  company  to  end  in  bankruptcy  (1784). 4 

The  French. — The  first  successful  French  expedition 
that  deserves  mention  was  made  by  the  French  India 
Company  in  1668.  By  the  end  of  the  century  French 
power  in  India  had  progressed  so  that  its  only  rival  for 
supremacy  was  the  power  of  the  English.  In  1741  Du- 
pleix,  an  enthusiast  for  French  control  in  India,  was  made 
governor  of  Pondicherry  and  in  1744  war  broke  out 
between  England  and  France.  The  remaining  history  of 

3  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  Vol.  XIV,  p.  405. 

4Helmolt’s  Weltgeschichte,  Leipzig,  Vol.  II,  1902,  p.  443. 


22  INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 

the  French  in  India  will  be  treated  in  the  following 

pages. 

The  English . — The  first  Englishman  to  reach  India  was 
the  Jesuit  Thomas  Stephens,  who  as  missionary  accom¬ 
panied  the  Portuguese  in  1579.  His  letters  attracted 
attention  at  home  and  soon  English  merchants  were  bound 
for  the  East.  However,  not  much  was  accomplished  until 
the  East  India  Company  came  into  existence  (1600). 
The  Company  received  its  first  tract  of  land  in  India 
(Madras)  in  1639.  Bombay,  the  gift  of  King  Charles 
II.  of  England,  was  added  to  it  in  1668,  and  a  piece  of 
land  near  Calcutta  was  acquired  from  the  Great  Mogul  in 
1686.  After  the  death  of  Arungzeb  (1707),  the  Mogul 
Empire  rapidly  declined.  One  tribe  after  another  was 
gaining  its  independence  when  war  broke  out  in  Europe 
between  England  and  France  (1744).  This  caused  hos¬ 
tilities  between  the  English  and  the  French  in  India.  Both 
parties  easily  received  aid  from  native  tribes,  whom  they 
trained  in  European  warfare  and  called  sepoys.  During 
this  struggle  victory  was  on  the  side  of  the  French,  but 
by  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1748)  conquered  terri¬ 
tory  was  returned.  Dupleix,  Governor  of  Pondicherry 
at  the  time,  seeing  the  success  of  French  arms,  conceived 
the  idea  of  founding  a  French  empire  in  India.  This  he 
hoped  to  do  by  bringing  the  native  tribes  under  his 
suzerainty.  An  excellent  opportunity  was  offered  by  the 
disputed  successions  at  the  native  Courts  of  Hyderabad 
and  Arcot.  Dupleix  placed  nominees  on  both  thrones. 
But  this  was  contrary  to  the  wish  of  the  English,  and 
they,  in  turn,  placed  a  nominee  on  the  throne  of  Arcot. 
War  between  the  English  and  the  French  was  the  result. 
During  this  struggle  the  English  by  their  capture  and 
brave  defense  of  Arcot  (1751)  won  a  name  for  valor 
throughout  India.  At  the  Battle  of  Plassey  (1756) 
Bengal  was  brought  virtually  under  British  control.  In 
1760  the  French  began  anew  the  struggle  for  supremacy. 
Pondicherry  was  finally  taken  (1761)  and  the  predomi- 


POLITICAL  HISTORY 


23 


nance  of  the  British  over  the  French  was  secured.  In 
1816  Pondicherry  was  restored  to  the  French,  and  at  the 
present  day  is  the  chief  settlement  of  their  possessions  in 
India. 

In  1772  Warren  Hastings  was  appointed  first  titular 
governor-general  of  India.  During  his  term  British  rule 
in  India  passed  through  its  most  critical  period.  War 
broke  out  with  the  powerful  Mahratta  Confederacy  and 
with  Hyder  Ali,  “the  ablest  warrior  in  India”  at  the  time. 
The  Company  was  found  unprepared;  money  especially 
was  wanting;  nevertheless,  owing  to  the  inflexibility  and 
diplomacy  of  Hastings,  the  English  did  not  emerge  from 
the  broil  as  losers.  In  1798,  Wellesley  arrived  in  India 
as  governor-general  imbued  with  imperial  projects  which 
were  destined  to  change  the  map  of  the  country.”  He 
conquered  much  land  in  the  north  and  brought  prac¬ 
tically  the  whole  south  under  British  administration. 
After  his  term  British  expansion  steadily  progressed  in 
India.  The  Central  Provinces  were  formed  in  1818.  Bur¬ 
mese  territory  was  annexed  in  1826,  1852  and  1885. 
Sind  was  subdued  in  1843.  Lord  Dalhousie,  Governor- 
General  from  1848  to  1856,  was  of  the  opinion  that  it 
would  be  of  the  greatest  advantage  to  have  them  under 
English  protection.  Accordingly  he  brought  the  Punjab, 
Sattara,  Nagpur,  Lower  Burma  and  Oude  under  British 
authority.  The  intentions  of  Lord  Dalhousie  were  un¬ 
doubtedly  good,  but  by  his  actions  he  irritated  the  influ¬ 
ential  classes  of  natives.  A  conspiracy  was  formed  among 
them  against  the  British  and  having  secured  the  support 
of  the  Bengal  Sepoy  Army,  they  rose  in  open  rebellion  in 
the  spring  of  1857.  Gradually,  however,  the  revolt  was 
brought  under  control  and  its  leaders  were  severely 
punished. 

Under  the  Crown. — As  an  effect  of  this  insurrection 
the  government  of  India  was  by  an  Act  of  Parliament 
transferred  from  the  East  India  Company  to  the  Crown. 
The  governor-general  received  the  additional  title  of  vice- 


24 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


roy.  In  1877,  Queen  Victoria  was  proclaimed  Empress 
of  India  at  Delhi.  At  this  time  trouble  was  continually 
felt  in  the  northwest.  The  year  previous,  Baluchistan  had 
been  brought  under  British  protection,  and  later  some  of 
its  districts  were  even  annexed.  Afghanistan  was  also  the 
cause  of  much  anxiety. 

Of  recent  years  there  has  arisen  in  India  “a  wave  of 
national  aspiration.”  It  was  first  felt  in  1886  at  the  forma¬ 
tion  of  the  Indian  NTational  Congress,  which  comprises  the 
educated  class  among  the  natives  who  claim  for  themselves 
a  larger  share  in  the  administration.  In  1904  general 
unrest  was  felt,  and  although  nothing  serious  occurred,  still 
the  British  Government  thought  it  prudent  in  1907  to 
appoint  two  natives  to  public  offices,  and  another  in  1909. 
When  the  World  War  broke  out  in  1914,  India  responded 
to  Great  Britain’s  call  with  1,250,000  troops.  The  bril¬ 
liant  victory  of  Armageddon  in  Palestine  was  chiefly  the 
achievement  of  Indian  troops.  However,  India  became  at 
no  time  the  scene  of  battle,  except  when  the  “Emden” 
bombarded  Madras. 

In  1917  Mr.  Montagu,  appointed  secretary  of  state, 
visited  India  and  together  with  the  Viceroy,  Lord  Chelms¬ 
ford,  purposed  to  carry  into  effect  the  declaration  made 
in  Parliament,  August  20,  1917,  that  “the  policy  of  His 
Majesty’s  government  is  that  of  the  increasing  association 
of  the  Indians  in  every  branch  of  the  administration  and 
the  gradual  development  of  self-governing  institutions 
with  the  view  to  the  progressive  realization  of  responsible 
government  in  India  as  an  integral  part  of  the  Empire.” 
Shortly  after  this,  the  Committee  of  Inquiry  into  seditious 
crime  in  India,  over  which  Mr.  Justice  Bowlatt  presided, 
advised  the  government  to  arm  itself  with  special  powers 
against  such  crime,  to  be  brought  into  action  when  sedi¬ 
tions  imperiled  public  safety.  The  result  was  the  Bowlatt 
Act  (1919),  introduced  into  the  legislation  despite  the 
solid  opposition  of  the  unofficial  members.  This  was  the 
spark  that  kindled  the  violent  agitation  throughout  the 


POLITICAL  HISTORY 


25 


country.  Riots  broke  out  at  Calcutta,  Delhi  and  Amrit¬ 
sar,  the  sacred  city  of  the  Sikhs.  At  Bombay  the  Passive 
Resistance  League  was  formed  under  the  leadership  of 
Mahatma  Ghandi,  the  successful  champion  of  the  cause 
of  Indian  laborers  in  South  Africa. 

Meanwhile  the  Montagu-Chelmsford  report  bore  fruit. 
A  bill  framed  on  the  lines  of  this  report  received  the  ap¬ 
proval  of  both  Houses  of  Parliament  and  the  royal  assent 
in  December  1919.  This  Government  of  India  Act  (1919) 
made  several  important  changes  especially  in  the  manage¬ 
ment  of  the  provinces.  Despite  the  resolute  opposition  of 
the  Nationalists,  the  new  government  was  established,  Sir 
William  Meyer  becoming  the  first  High  Commissioner  of 
India,  August  1921.  In  1922,  the  visit  of  the  Prince 
of  Wales  gave  rise  to  rioting  in  Bombay,  which  called  the 
attention  of  the  whole  world  to  the  conditions  in  India 
and  its  hatred  of  British  rule.5 

Ghandi. — Mahatma  Ghandi  was  the  moving  spirit  of 
the  Nationalists.  He  is  a  fascinating  leader,  possesses  an 
uprightness  of  character  that  even  his  enemies  admire, 
and  employs  a  directness  of  speech  which  puts  to  scorn 
diplomatic  verbosity.  As  a  consequence  his  word  is  law  to 
his  adherents.  Religiously  a  Hindu,  he  recognizes  only  the 
four  traditional  castes,  i.e.,  Brahman,  Kshatriya,  Vaisya 
and  Sudra.  His  policy  is  to  abolish  the  numerous  sub¬ 
castes  and  discard  the  childish  restrictions,  particularly 
the  social  ostracism  of  the  pariahs.  Ghandi  preaches  the 
doctrine  of  non-cooperation  with  the  English  Government, 
insisting  on  abstention  from  all  government  and  military 
service  and  on  withdrawal  of  Indian  children  from  British 
schools  and  institutions.  His  program  also  urges  the 
establishment  of  arbitration  courts  and  the  settlement  of 
industrial  disputes.  By  conducting  a  series  of  boycotts 
he  attempted  to  drive  out  the  English  merchants  and  man¬ 
ufacturers  and  ultimately  to  gain  for  India  her  autonomy. 
His  policy  for  immediate  and  complete  self-government 
8  Catholic  Encyclopedia ,  Supplement  I,  Vol.  XVII,  1922,  p.  396. 


26 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


is  likewise  insisted  upon  by  many  of  the  daily  papers. 
Contrary  to  bis  doctrine  of  passive  resistance,  Ghandi  is 
reported  to  have  now  and  then  preached  violence  in  order 
to  obtain  immediate  results.  In  view  of  these  facts  and 
for  the  reason  that  many  of  the  natives,  chiefly  Mussul¬ 
mans,  are  restive,  it  is  not  at  all  surprising  that  daily 
papers  from  time  to  time  report  fresh  outbreaks  in  some 
parts  of  the  country.  These  uprisings,  however,  are  of 
local  character  and  are  easily  crushed  by  the  English.  On 
March  18,  1922,  Ghandi  was  arrested  and  sentenced  to 
six  years’  imprisonment.  Yet  the  fires  of  revolt  are  but 
smoldering  and  threaten  to  burst  into  flame  at  any  time. 
Well  may  we  ask :  How  is  it  all  going  to  end  ?  6 

Extent  of  British  Buie. — India  may  be  divided  into 
British  territory  and  Independent  Native  States.  These 
latter  are  in  varying  degrees  under  the  sway  of  the  gov¬ 
ernor-general  of  India  who  is  more  commonly  called  a 
viceroy.  Since  December  1912  his  residence  has  been 
at  Delhi.  For  purposes  of  administration  the  British 
territory  is  divided  into  eight  great  provinces  and  six 
lesser  charges.  The  eight  major  provinces  are  the  Presi¬ 
dencies  of  Madras,  Bombay  and  Bengal;  the  Lieutenant- 
Governorships  of  the  United  Provinces,  the  Punjab, 
Burma  and  Mehar;  and  the  Chief  Commissionerships  of 
the  Central  Provinces.  These  provinces  are  governed  by 
officials  variously  called  governors,  lieutenant-governors 
and  chief-commissioners.  These  officials  are  directly  re¬ 
sponsible  to  the  governor-general,  who  together  with  his 
council  possesses  the  chief  executive  and  judicial  powers 
in  India. 

The  Indian  States  cover  about  two-fifths  of  the  area  of 
British  India  and  contain  about  two-ninths  of  the  popu¬ 
lation.  These  states  are  governed  by  native  princes,  min¬ 
isters  and  councils  with  the  advice  of  the  supreme  gov¬ 
ernment  of  India.  There  are  in  all  693  such  states  of 
which  only  about  200  have  claims  to  some  importance. 

*  Catholic  Missions,  New  York,  April  1922. 


POLITICAL  HISTORY 


27 


The  rulers  of  the  states  are  known  as  maharajas  and 
rajahs  according  to  their  rank.  These  men  are  supreme 
within  their  territories,  administer  justice,  keep  their  own 
courts  and  have  a  limited  number  of  standing  troops. 
They  may  not,  however,  make  treaties,  send  or  receive 
ambassadors,  make  war  or  peace. 

The  most  important  of  the  states  are  (1)  Hyderabad, 
the  premier  state  in  India,  comprising  82,698  square 
miles  with  a  population,  in  1921,  of  12,453,627 ;  (2) 
Mysore;  (3)  Baroda;  (4)  Himalayan  Hill  States,  west 
of  Nepal  and  including  Kashmir;  (5)  Sikkim;  (6)  Sikh 
States  in  the  Sirhind  Plain;  (7)  Bajputana,  460  miles 
long  and  530  miles  wide  with  a  population  of  9,853,012 
in  1921,  and  composed  of  some  twenty  states;  (8)  States 
of  Central  India,  a  group  of  148  states;  (9)  Malayalim 
States  of  Travancore  and  Cochin;  (10)  Punjab  States; 
(11)  Gwalior  State;  (12)  Indo-Chinese  group  of  states; 
(13)  Hill  tribes  of  the  northeastern  frontier.  There  are 
only  two  totally  independent  states,  Bhutan  and  Nepal, 
both  situated  in  the  Himalayas.7 

Effects  of  British  Rule  in  India . — Before  concluding 
it  may  be  advisable  to  enumerate  some  effects  of  British 
rule  in  India.  British  rule  has  constructed  a  network  of 
railway  and  telegraph  lines  throughout  the  country;  it 
has  spent  millions  for  the  improvement  of  highways;  it 
fosters  learning  by  the  erection  of  colleges  and  universi¬ 
ties  ;  it  encourages  works  of  charity  by  donations  to  hos¬ 
pitals,  orphanages  and  dispensaries;  in  short,  it  has  done 
much  for  the  material  uplift  of  the  natives.  But  if  British 
rule  in  India  has  its  advantages  it  also  has  its  defects. 
They  are  especially  noticeable  during  the  time  of  famine. 
As  remarked  above,  these  famines  are  due  not  so  much 
to  the  scarcity  of  food  as  to  the  cornering  of  the  grain  by 
the  grain  dealers,  who  then  demand  unreasonable  prices. 
The  Government,  it  is  true,  does  employ  means  to  alleviate 
the  sufferings  of  the  people  during  these  times,  but  the 
7 Whitaker’s  Almanac,  London,  1922,  pp.  628-030. 


28 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


means  employed  are,  to  quote  an  authority  on  India, 
“neither  adequate  nor  radical,”'®  and  in  so  far  the  Govern¬ 
ment  is  to  he  blamed.  Furthermore,  British  rule  in  India 
has  always  been,  and  still  is,  more  a  drawback,  perhaps, 
than  an  advantage  in  the  conversion  of  the  natives.  The 
Government  professes  a  strict  neutrality  regarding  the 
Christianization  of  the  pagans,  hut  this  neutrality  “is 
nothing  short  of  a  public  encouragement  to  indilfer- 
entism.”  9  Then  also  Christ  and  His  teaching  are  (at 
least  were  in  1905  with  no  outlook  for  change)  so  strictly 
barred  from  the  state  schools  that  from  them  we  could  not 
even  learn  that  Christianity  exists  in  the  world.10  But 
this  is  not  the  worst ;  even  “idolatry  and  vile  superstition 
are  under  the  protection  of  the  law,”  and  a  law,  be  it  re¬ 
membered,  compiled  by  a  Christian  government.  An¬ 
other  evil  connected  with  British  rule  consists  in  the 
numerous  taxes  under  wdiich  the  people  of  India  are 
groaning.  A  post-war  writer  on  India  expresses  this  fact 
in  the  words:  “Taxes  and  more  taxes,  that  is  the  story 
of  British  rule.”  11 

8  Rev.  Ernest  Hull,  S.  J.,  Catholic  Encyclopedia ,  Vol.  VII,  p.  727. 

®  Ihidem,  p.  732. 

10  Rev.  Jos.  Dahlmann,  S.  J.,  Indische  Fahrten ,  Freiburg,  Vol.  I, 
1908,  p.  390. 

“Basanta  K.  Roy,  What  India  Wants,  in  America,  Vol.  XXI, 
1919,  p.  540. 


CHAPTER  III 


NON-CHRISTIAN  RELIGIONS  IN  INDIA 

There  are  seven  main  forms  of  religion  in  India  to¬ 
day,  but  what  is  known  as  the  religion  of  India  is  Brah¬ 
manism.  We  can  trace  its  development  from  the  poly¬ 
theistic  nature-w7orship  of  the  ancient  Aryan  conquerors 
through  profound  changes  to  the  intricate  cult  in  modern 
times,  called  Hinduism. 

Animism. — Of  all  the  religions  of  India  Animism  is 
the  oldest.  It  is  a  belief  which  ascribes  to  all  nature, 
mountains  and  rivers,  plants  and  animals,  stars  and 
planets,  an  individual  soul.  Its  followers  hold  elves  and 
fairies  to  be  just  as  real  as  demons  and  deities,  believe  in 
magic,  and  strive  to  propitiate  invisible  beings.  Animism 
is  the  religion  of  the  aboriginal  Dravidian  tribes,  a  rem¬ 
nant  of  pre-Aryan  times  now  gradually  being  absorbed 
into  Hinduism.  It  may  surprise  us  to  hear  of  the  exist¬ 
ence  of  such  a  pre-Christian  religion  in  a  country  so  long 
in  contact  with  civilization,  yet  at  the  time  of  the  last 
census  (1921)  India  had  10,295,168  adherents  of  this 
creed.  The  Santals,  Bhils  and  Gonds  have  clung  to  this 
religion  for  over  4,000  years. 

Vedism. — When  the  Aryan  invaders  first  appeared  in 
history  they  professed  the  Vedic  Religion,  so  called  from 
the  Vedas,  their  sacred  books,  written  between  1500  and 
700  b.c.  Vedism  stands  in  marked  contrast  to  the  gloomy 
pantheism  of  a  later  day.  It  consisted  in  the  worship  of 
the  personified  powers  of  nature.  The  Aryan  deities  are 
described  as  rather  pure,  powerful,  all-wise,  the  protectors 
of  the  individuals,  of  the  family  and  of  the  tribe,  who 
provided  for  the  Indian  the  joys  of  life. 

29 


30 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


Sacrifices. — At  this  period  temples  were  unknown. 
The  householder  offered  the  sacrifice,  consisting  of  ani¬ 
mals  or  cereals,  on  a  little  mound  of  earth  or  stone.  Only 
the  great  tribal  sacrifices  were  offered  by  priests,  who  con¬ 
sidered  this  their  chief  task.  The  Aryans  held  woman  in 
high  regard. 

She  held  many  rights  in  common  with  man  that  are  now 
lost  to  her  through  the  formation  of  classes  and  the  oppres¬ 
sion  of  the  Brahman.  Some  of  the  most  beautiful  hymns 
of  this  time  were  composed  by  women.  The  deceased 
relatives  held  a  place  sacred  in  the  memory  of  the  sur¬ 
vivors.  The  latter  made  feast  offerings  at  stated  times, 
to  increase,  as  they  believed,  the  happiness  of  the  de¬ 
parted,  and  these  in  turn  promoted  the  welfare  of  the 
descendants. 

Popular  Brahmanism. — About  the  year  1000  b.c.  we 
note  a  marvelous  change  in  the  Vedic  Religion.  The 
caste  system  had  sprung  up.  An  elaborate  liturgy  had 
been  introduced,  outdoing  even  J udaism  in  its  multiplicity 
of  purifications  and  complexity  of  ceremonial  rite.  Only 
priests  who  had  undergone  a  long  period  of  training  in 
the  household  of  a  Brahman  teacher,  called  guru,  could 
offer  sacrifice.  They  performed  the  marriage  rite  and 
other  important  family  ceremonies.  Their  will,  the  na¬ 
tives  believed,  bestowed  an  eternity  of  bliss,  or  doomed 
to  the  deepest  hell.  They  had  practically  become  gods. 
Women  forfeited  nearly  all  their  rights.  Though  the 
moral  code  taught  many  salutary  lessons  of  obedience, 
charity  and  chastity,  this  new  form  of  Brahmanism  placed 
an  inconceivable  burden  on  the  members  of  the  lower 
castes  who  were  banished  from  society. 

Pantheistic  Brahmanism. — The  vague  monotheism  that 
found  expression  in  the  later  Vedic  hymns  appealed  to 
the  minds  of  the  educated  Brahmans  more  and  more  and 
led  them  to  invent  a  new  deity,  the  pantheistic  All-god, 
Brahma,  represented  as  the  creator  of  the  world.  They 
taught  that  the  ultimate  end  of  all  things,  of  the  lesser 


NON-CHRISTIAN  RELIGIONS  IN  INDIA  31' 


gods  as  well  as  of  the  earth,  was  the  absorption  into  the 
impersonal  Brahma. 

This  form  of  Brahmanism  became  very  popular  within 
the  Brahman  caste,  where  it  still  obtains  to-day.  But  the 
masses  had  no  love  for  an  impersonal  god,  who  for  a  life¬ 
span  of  faithful  service  proffered  only  the  loss  of  all  in¬ 
dividuality.  Their  hearts  still  clung  to  an  eternity  of 
conscious  bliss. 

Transmigration. — About  this  time  the  idea  of  the 
transmigration  of  the  soul  came  into  vogue.  This  doc¬ 
trine,  which  later  became  prominent  in  both  Brahmanism 
and  Buddhism,  teaches  that  at  death  the  soul  passes  from 
one  body  to  another,  either  of  man  or  brute,  and  so  the 
process  continues  for  an  indefinite  period  of  time  till  the 
soul  returns  again  to  Brahma.  The  natives  hold  that  in 
as  far  as  a  person  led  a  life  of  virtue  or  crime,  he  would 
be  reborn  in  a  higher  or  lower  animal  or  even  in  a  plant. 
For  this  reason,  all  living  creatures  are  held  sacred.  This 
theory  of  reincarnation  has  given  rise  to  inhuman  prac¬ 
tices  of  penance  and  self-torture,  made  worse  by  the  belief 
that  sins  committed  in  a  preexistent  state  are  punished  in 
a  future  birth  if  not  expiated  before  death.  The  misery 
caused  by  this  wretched  doctrine  is  untold. 

Buddhism. — In  the  sixth  century  b.c.  a  portion  of 
Brahmanism  took  on  a  new  form,  called  Buddhism.  Gau¬ 
tama,  or  Buddha,  the  “enlightened,”  as  he  is  commonly 
known,  belonged  to  the  house  of  the  royal  Cakyas.  At 
an  early  age  he  was  deeply  impressed  by  the  universal 
suffering  of  mankind.  Having  renounced  his  right  to 
reign  he  secretly  took  leave  of  wife  and  child  and  set  out 
to  study  the  cause  of  so  much  misery  and  to  discover  a 
means  of  deliverance.  After  seven  years  of  fasting  he 
believed  he  had  discovered  a  way  of  salvation.  He  began 
to  preach  at  Benares  and, '  aided  by  an  attractive  per¬ 
sonality  and  unusual  eloquence,  soon  had  many  adherents 
even  among  the  Brahmans  and  nobles.  Many  of  Buddha’s 
disciples  left  their  homes,  as  he  had  done,  lived  in  com- 


32 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


mon  a  life  of  poverty  and  devoted  their  days  to  contempla¬ 
tion,  thus  founding  Buddhistic  monasticism.  “Buddha 
may  be  credited  with  the  qualities  of  a  great  and  good 
man.  In  his  mildness,  his  readiness  to  overlook  insults, 
his  zeal,  chastity  and  simplicity  of  life,  he  reminds  one 
not  a  little  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,77  1 

Buddha  accepted  much  that  the  Brahmans  taught : 
the  belief  in  a  previous  existence,  the  system  of  rebirths; 
differing  only  in  his  conception  of  the  final  state  of  the 
saved  and  in  his  plan  of  salvation.  To  obtain  deliverance 
from  rebirths  man  must  stifle  all  desire,  both  lawful  and 
unlawful;  he  thus  enters  Nirvana,  the  Buddhistic  heaven, 
a  state  where  all  self-consciousness  is  lost,  in  reality, 
where  the  soul  ceases  to  exist.  He  set  aside  the  caste 
system  and  taught  that  all  men  are  equal.  He  also  in¬ 
culcated  the  spirit  of  unselfishness,  of  brotherhood,  of 
forgiveness,  patience  and  compassion.  Because  of  this 
new  doctrine  of  fraternal  charity,  and  owing  to  the  en¬ 
deavors  of  royal  converts,  Buddhism  spread  over  the 
whole  of  Northern  India  during  the  next  two  centuries, 
and  about  the  middle  of  the  third  century  b.c.  King 
Asoka  established  it  as  a  state  religion. 

Buddhism,  however,  ignored  the  deities,  and  though  for 
a  time  after  Buddha’s  death  he  was  the  object  of  worship, 
the  masses  soon  clamored  for  their  gods.  A  reaction  set 
in  which  resulted  in  the  formation  of  two  rival  cults,  that 
of  Siva  and  that  of  Vishnu.  Buddhism  never  ousted  Brah¬ 
manism  from  any  large  part  of  India.  The  two  religions 
coexisted  as  popular  religions  during  more  than  a  thou¬ 
sand  years  (250  b.c.— 800  a.d.)  and  modern  Hinduism  is 
the  joint  product  of  both. 

Though  at  the  present  writing  the  Buddhists  number 
more  than  ten  million  or  three  per  cent  of  the  population 
of  British  India,  Buddhism  is  of  little  importance  in 
India  proper.  Burma,  however,  a  province  of  Farther 
India,  is  essentially  Buddhistic.  The  census  of  1921  gives 

1  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  29. 


NON-CHRISTIAN  RELIGIONS  IN  INDIA  33 


10,721,453  Buddhists,  nearly  all  living  in  Burma.  It  is 
here  characterized  by  the  extensive  building  of  pagodas. 
Every  village  has  its  group.  The  Burmese  thereby  hope 
to  be  free  from  rebirths  and  to  gain  merit  for  heaven. 
Here,  too,  Buddhism  is  found  in  its  relatively  purest 
form.  Every  Burman  must  dwell  for  a  time  in  the  mon¬ 
asteries  of  the  monks,  who  thus  gain  many  supporters 
and  friends. 

Siva  and  Vishnu  Cults. — As  noted  above,  the  natives 
cared  little  for  the  Nirvana  of  the  Buddhists  and  less  for 
Brahma;  so  they  raised  to  the  dignity  of  the  supreme 
deity  two  of  their  old  traditional  gods  and  honored  them 
by  a  special  cult.  One,  the  ancient  storm-god  Rudra,  re¬ 
ceived  a  new  name,  Siva,  the  “blessed.”  The  other, 
Vishnu,  in  Vedic  times  a  form  of  the  sun-god,  was  hon¬ 
ored  as  the  promoter  of  growth  and  joy  among  men.  The 
new  outgrowths  sprang  up  in  different  parts  of  India  in 
the  fourth  or  fifth  century.  They  did  not  exclude  the 
worship  of  other  gods  and  goddesses,  nor  of  the  spirits, 
of  the  sacred  rivers  and  mountains,  the  sun,  moon  and 
stars.  The  Brahmans  viewed  with  alarm  the  rising  popu¬ 
larity  of  the  new  religions.  To  counteract  it  they  created 
the  Hindu  triad,  consisting  of  Brahma  (the  Creator), 
Vishnu  (the  Preserver),  and  Siva  (the  Dissolver),  and  in 
this  manner  sought  to  bring  the  unsatisfied  masses  once 
more  under  Brahman  subjection.  With  Vishnu  and  Siva 
the  popular  fancy  again  associated  other  gods.  Promi¬ 
nent  among  them  is  Krishna,  the  god  of  incarnations,  who, 
to  obtain  special  favors  for  mankind,  assumed  now  a 
human,  now  an  animal  form. 

Jainism . — With  the  rise  of  Buddhism  another  system 
of  worship  came  into  existence.  Jainism,  so  called  from 
jina ,  i.e.,  the  conqueror,  one  of  the  names  applied  to  the 
founder,  resembles  Buddhism  very  closely.  Like  Buddha, 
Nattaputta  gave  up  the  luxury  of  a  princely  home  to  lead 
the  mortified  life  of  a  Brahman  ascetic.  He  gathered 
about  him  disciples  and  with  them  organized  a  monastic 


34 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


system.  He  insisted  upon  a  life  of  extreme  mortification. 
He  likewise  accepted  the  theory  of  rebirths,  and  after  the 
eighth,  a  perfect  Jain  entered  a  heaven  of  individual 
blessedness.  At  present  Jainism  is  but  a  form  of  hero- 
worship.  Magnificent  temples  are  erected  to  Jina  and 
other  teachers.  The  Jain  may  not  eat  meat,  nor  take 
animal  life.  This  principle  has  been  so  overdrawn  that  in 
Hutch  a  temple-hospital  is  maintained  supporting  5,000 
rats.  In  1921  India  counted  1,248,182  Jains. 

Mohammedanism. — Mohammed,  the  founder  of  Mo¬ 
hammedanism,  was  born  in  Arabia,  near  Mecca,  570  a.d. 
In  his  fortieth  year  he  claimed  to  have  received  a  call 
from  the  Angel  Gabriel  to  preach  as  a  prophet  of  Allah. 
Driven  from  Mecca  he  fled  to  Medina,  where  he  secured 
a  following.  Having  organized  an  army  of  40,000  he 
conquered  Mecca,  and  from  here  began  a  series  of  aggres¬ 
sive  wars.  Mohammedanism  entered  India  in  1001  a.d., 
when  Punjab  became  a  Mohammedan  province.  In  the 
seventeenth  century  it  flourished  over  a  great  part  of  the 
country. 

Mohammedanism  is  by  no  means  an  original  system 
of  theology;  it  contains  no  doctrine  not  found  in  Judaism, 
Christianity  or  Arabian  heathenism.  Its  chief  doctrine 
is :  “ There  is  no  God  but  the  true  God,  and  Mohammed  is 
His  prophet.”  Mohammed  taught  monotheism  as  the 
Christians  have  it,  but  rejected  the  belief  in  Christ.  He 
held  that  God  will  reward  the  good  and  punish  the  wicked : 
though  according  to  his  teaching  God  predestines  the  one 
to  be  good,  the  other,  wicked.  The  moral  code  of  the 
Mohammedans  possesses  much  that  is  praiseworthy,  yet 
falls  far  beneath  the  Christian  standard.  Idolatry, 
adultery,  false  witness,  gambling  and  usury  are  rightly 
forbiddden,  but  fraternal  charity  is  confined  to  fellow- 
Mohammedans.  Mohammed  forbade  infanticide,  but  al¬ 
lowed  a  man  to  have  four  lawful  wives  at  the  same  time 
and  any  number  of  concubines.  In  the  Koran,  the  Mo¬ 
hammedan  Bible,  church  and  state  are  not  separated  and 


NON-CHRISTIAN  RELIGIONS  IN  INDIA  35 


a  religious  war  of  aggression  is  the  sacred  duty  of  the 
Moslem  whenever  there  is  hope  of  conquering  the  “in¬ 
fidel” 

India  had  66,647,299  Mohammedans  in  1921,  The 
most  influential  maharajas  and  rajahs  of  to-day  are  Mo¬ 
hammedans.  Politically  they  are  the  strongest  body  in 
India.  To-day  they  are  divided  into  many  sects,  of  which 
the  Sunnites,  the  Wahabis  and  Shiites  are  the  chief.  There 
is  also  a  modern  school  known  as  the  Motazalites,  who 
form  the  progressive  party.  They  reject  much  of  the 
Koran.  They  seek  to  further  education,  hut  are  hostile  to 
Christianity.  Many  of  them  are  gradually  adopting  Hin¬ 
duism. 

Sikhism. — Sikhism  was  founded  by  Nanak  (1469— 
1539)  as  a  reaction  against  Brahmanism.  Though  of 
minor  importance  to-day  the  Sikhs  still  keep  up  the  tra¬ 
ditional  teaching  of  the  unity  of  God,  salvation  by  faith 
and  good  works,  and  the  equality  of  all  men.  Under  the 
first  nine  gurus  or  great  teachers  (1469-1675),  the  Sikhs 
were  a  peaceful  sect,  but  the  tenth  guru ,  Govind  Singh 
(1675—1708),  having  added  martial  passages  to  the  Adi - 
granth,  their  sacred  book,  made  war  their  business.  The 
Sikhs  adore  no  idols,  but  the  sacred  book  given  them  as 
a  guide  by  the  fourth  guru ,  Arjan,  is  worshiped  as  a 
personal  god  in  the  far-famed  Golden  Temple  of  Amritsar. 
The  Sikhs  are  easily  recognized  by  their  long  hair,  for 
they  never  have  it  cut.  They  never  use  tobacco.  For  a 
time  they  had  control  of  a  part  of  the  Punjab,  but  after 
several  wars  with  the  Moslem,  the  English  disbanded  them 
in  1849.  Since  that  time  they  have  ceased  to  exist  as  a 
governing  power.  The  census  of  1921  gives  the  number 
of  Sikhs  as  3,014,466,  most  of  whom  are  in  the  Punjab. 

Zoroastrianism. — A  learned  Jesuit  says  of  Zoroastrian¬ 
ism:  “It  is  the  highest  result  to  which  human  reason, 
unaided  by  revelation  can  attain.”  2  The  Parsis,  as  they 
are  called  in  India,  were  originally  Persians  and  are  still 
’Ernest  Hull,  S.  J.,  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  15& 


36 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


adherents  of  the  religions  system  which  teaches  that  there 
are  two  supreme  beings:  one,  a  principle  of  good,  the 
other,  of  evil.  Persecuted  by  the  Mohammedans  they  fled 
from  place  to  place  till  they  finally  reached  India  about 
700  a.d.  Here,  too,  they  came  in  conflict  with  the  Mos¬ 
lem.  They  obtained  peace  only  in  1774,  when  Thana, 
their  chief  city,  came  under  English  control.  Modern 
Zoroastrianism  is  now  better  called  Mazdaism  (from 
Mazda,  the  name  of  the  “Good  God”). 

The  Parsis  teach  that  God  gave  man  a  free  will,  and 
that  He  will  reward  or  punish  him  in  as  far  as  he  observes 
or  disobeys  the  divine  law.  The  Evil  Spirit  tempts  man, 
but  if  he  sins  he  can  repent  and  make  amendment.  They 
have  a  sort  of  purgatory  where  souls  whose  good  works 
are  equaled  by  their  wicked  deeds  are  confined.  Truth¬ 
fulness  and  generosity  are  their  national  virtues.  Con¬ 
verts  are  not  accepted.  The  Parsis  have  the  peculiar  cus¬ 
tom  of  placing  their  dead  in  the  so-called  Towers  of 
Silence,  where  they  are  exposed  to  birds  of  prey.  Owing 
to  his  intelligence  and  easy  accommodation  to  circum¬ 
stance  the  Parsi  holds  prominent  positions  in  industry  and 
trade.  The  sect  forms  a  community  of  aristocracy.  To¬ 
day  the  society  is  divided  and  many  of  the  traditional 
usages  are  coming  into  disuse.  Of  the  present  adherents 
the  Bombay  Presidency  has  the  highest  percentage.  The 
census  of  1921  gives  100,096  Parsis,  of  whom  all  but 
7,000  are  found  in  Bombay. 

Modem  Hinduism. — It  is  difficult,  in  fact  impossible, 
to  define  what  is  essential  to  Hinduism,  the  third  phase 
of  development  or  transformation  of  Brahmanism.  It  is 
generally  described  as  the  popular,  distorted,  corrupted 
side  of  early  Brahmanism.  All  the  religions  so  far  treated 
are  to  some  extent  contained  in  Hinduism.  It  comprises 
the  dignified  monotheism  of  the  Brahmans  and  the  most 
degrading  forms  of  nature-worship,  immoral  rites  and 
superstitions.  A  noted  authority  on  Hinduism  says  of  it : 
“Hay,  it  holds  out  the  right  hand  of  brotherhood  to  nature- 


NON-CHRISTIAN  RELIGIONS  IN  INDIA  37 


worshipers,  animal-worshipers,  tree-worshipers,  fetish- 
worshipers,  demon-worshipers.  It  does  not  scruple  to  per¬ 
mit  the  most  grotesque  forms  of  idolatry,  and  the  most 
degrading  varieties  of  superstition/’  3  Any  one  can 
become  a  Hindu  if  he  admits  the  supremacy  of  the 
Brahmans,  and  •  observes  certain  caste  rules  about  mar¬ 
riage,  food  and  professional  pursuits.  No  set  doctrine  is 
prescribed.  This  accounts  for  the  fact  that  so  many  sects 
are  drifting  into  Hinduism  and  that  of  a  total  population 
of  319,075,132  in  1921,  India  had  217,586,892  Hindus 
or  sixty-nine  per  cent  of  the  total  population. 

Hindu  Divinities. — We  have  considered  the  most  popu¬ 
lar  Hindu  deities,  Siva  and  Vishnu.  There  are  still  a 
few  others  deserving  mention.  Ganesa,  as  the  lord  of  all 
mischievous  spirits,  is  invoked  before  all  undertakings. 
He  is  represented  as  having  an  elephant  head  and  a  re¬ 
pulsive  human  body.  With  every  god  the  Indians  asso¬ 
ciate  a  goddess;  of  these  Kali,  the  wife  of  Siva,  is  most 
widely  honored.  The  natives  who  worship  a  goddess  are 
known  as  Saktas.  Their  cult  has  degenerated  to  shock¬ 
ing  orgies  of  drunkenness  and  sexual  immoralities,  which 
even  to  the  present  day  are  a  scandal  to  the  world.  The 
Brahmans  are  still  held  in  high  repute  especially  in  the 
villages.  “They  (Hindus)  are  taught,  that  it  is  better 
to  offend  the  gods  than  the  Guru.  If  a  man  offends  the 
gods,  his  Guru  can  intercede  in  his  behalf  and  win  their 
favor ;  but  if  a  man  offend  a  Guru,  there  is  none  to  appease 
his  wrath.”  Deceased  relatives  and  other  noted  men  are 
also  deified. 

Even  animals  and  plants  are  accorded  divine  worship. 
This  degrading  idolatry  is  due  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
transmigration  of  the  soul.  Of  the  many  trees  and  plants 
reverenced  the  banyan  tree,  the  wood  apple  and  the  tulasi 
plant  excel.  The  latter  is  worshiped  especially  by  the 
women,  many  of  whom  make  their  religion  consist  in 

8  Catholic  Encyclopedia ,  Vol.  VII,  p.  358,  quoting  Monier 
Williams,  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism,  1891,  p.  2. 


38 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


walking  round  the  tulasi  plant,  in  saying  prayers  to  it, 
or  in  placing  offerings  before  it.  Animal  worship  will  be 
treated  in  a  later  chapter.  Stones  are  believed  to  possess 
real  divinity,  though  oftener  they  are  mere  amulets.  Of 
all  nature-worship  water  gets  a  goodly  portion.  Lakes 
and  rivers,  particularly  the  Ganges,  are  addressed  in 
prayer  as  personal  gods.  This,  for  instance,  is  a  prayer 
to  the  Ganges :  “Oh,  Mother  Ganga !  I  now  bow  at  thy 
feet;  have  mercy  on  thy  servant.  Who  can  describe  thy 
virtues  ?  Were  the  greatest  of  sinners,  the  perpetrator 
of  endless  crimes  to  pronounce  the  word  Ganga,  he  being 
delivered  from  all  his  sins,  shall  be  translated  to  the  bliss¬ 
ful  abode  of  the  celestials.” 

Home  Services . — Home  worship  differs  according  to 
the  creed  and  the  condition  of  the  family.  In  the  wealthier 
homes  a  morning  and  evening  service  is  held  before  the 
household  god  by  a  priest  called  the  purohit.  The  offerings 
of  cereals,  fruits  or  milk  used  in  the  ceremony  become  his 
property.  But  where  the  pinch  of  poverty  is  felt  the 
family  service  consists  almost  exclusively  in  the  mechani¬ 
cal  repetition  of  the  names  of  the  gods,  which  is  said  to 
confer  great  merit.  For  this  reason  the  Hindu  names  his 
child  after  the  gods.  Beal  adoration  is  scarcely  found 
among  the  lower  classes.  The  wife  of  the  Bheddi  still 
invokes  the  family  deity  in  a  worshiping  posture. 

Temple  Services. — The  Hindu’s  idea  of  worship  differs 
entirely  from  ours.  We  have  a  common  devotion.  But 
when  a  Hindu  goes  to  the  temple  on  the  appointed  days 
he  does  not  think  of  assisting  at  prayers  with  others  ;  he 
is  satisfied  with  beholding  his  god  and  making  a  private 
offering. 

Reform  Movements. — The  Hindus  are  gradually 
showing  signs  of  the  influence  of  Christian  thought.  Many 
movements  have  begun,  tending  to  bring  back  the  purer 
Yedic  cult  seasoned  with  Christian  ideas.  The  first  and 
most  important  of  these  is  the  reform  inaugurated  by 
Bam  Mohan  Boy  (1774-1833),  who  sought  to  eliminate 


NON-CHRISTIAN  RELIGIONS  IN  INDIA  39 


idolatry,  calling  it  “the  source  of  prejudice  and  super¬ 
stition,  and  the  total  destruction  of  moral  principle.” 
After  the  death  of  the  reformer  his  society,  called  Brahma 
Sarnaj  or  Theistic  Church,  in  1878  because  of  internal 
dissensions  split  up  into  three  sections.  There  are  more 
than  a  hundred  theistic  societies  in  India  to-day,  which 
though  tainted  with  pantheism  show  the  desire  for  a  saner 
creed.  The  total  number  of  adherents  does  not  exceed 
4,000,  mostly  in  the  Calcutta  district. 

To  gain  an  adequate  idea  of  the  general  corruption  both 
moral  and  religious,  India  must  be  seen.  One  cannot 
study  its  religions  without  feeling  a  desire  to  help  the 
Indians  to  a  knowledge  of  a  better  creed.  Steeped  in 
idolatry  and  superstition,  sunk  in  a  mass  of  spiritual  and 
bodily  misery,  the  Indian  people  form  a  fertile  field  for 
the  zeal  of  the  missionary. 


r 


CHAPTER  IV 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 

Like  all  other  peoples  of  the  Orient,  the  natives  of 
India  have  peculiarities  of  manner  and  custom,  which 
are  both  quaint  and  amusing  to  an  inhabitant  of  the  West. 
These  peculiarities  show  themselves  in  every  phase  of  the 
Indian’s  private,  social  and  religious  life.  The  Abbe 
Dubois  1  has  made  a  thorough  and  interesting  study  of 
this  strangely  self-contradicting  people,  but  for  our  pur¬ 
pose  the  brief  consideration  of  the  following  topics  is 
deemed  sufficient. 

Costume  of  Men.  Headdress. — Personal  attire  in  India 
with  some  slight  modifications  is  substantially  the  same 
for  its  four  main  religious  groups,  Mohammedan,  Hindu, 
Sikh  and  Parsi.  The  costume  of  the  aboriginal  races  such 
as  the  Bhils,  Gonds,  Santals,  etc.,  is  rather  scanty.  The 
principal  garments  of  these  people  are  the  headdress, 
shirt  and  covering  for  legs.  Mohammedans  shave  the 
head,  but  wear  a  full  beard  which,  if  the  wearer  has  made 
a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  is  dyed  a  dull  red ;  while  Hindus, 
except  the  Rajput,  shave  the  face  and  head,  leaving  a 
topknot.  The  Sikh  shaves  neither  head  nor  face.  He 
parts  his  beard  in  the  middle  and  trains  it  upwards.  A 
piece  of  cloth,  called  dhata,  is  generally  wound  around 
chin  and  head  to  keep  the  hair  clean  and  tidy.  The  hair 
of  the  Sikh’s  head  is  tied  into  a  knot  at  the  top  or  back 
of  the  head.  When  the  Parsis  were  first  admitted  into 
India,  the  condition,  among  others,  was  imposed  on  them 
by  the  Hindus  that  they  follow  the  Hindu  custom  of 

1  Hindu  Manners,  Customs  and  Ceremonies,  Oxford,  1897. 

40 


A  Rajah  with  His  Children,  Showing  the  Attire  of  the  Ruling  Class. 


MANNEKS  AND  CUSTOMS 


41 


wearing  the  topknot.  To-day  it  is  chiefly  the  old-fashioned 
Parsi  in  country  districts  who  still  follows  this  prescrip¬ 
tion. 

The  covering  for  the  head  is  either  a  turban  or  a  cap. 
Turbans  are  of  two  kinds,  the  amamah  and  the  pagri. 
The  amamah  is  a  piece  of  cloth  measuring  from  twenty 
to  thirty  inches  wide,  and  from  six  to  nine  yards  long, 
and  is  bound  around  the  head  from  left  to  right  so  as  to 
form  angles  at  the  front  and  back.  The  amamah  is  some¬ 
times  wrapped  around  a  conical  cap  with  the  ends  hang¬ 
ing  over  the  shoulders.  This  latter  style  is  adopted  mostly 
by  the  wealthier  and  nobler  Mohammedans.  The  pagri, 
of  Hindu  origin,  is  a  piece  of  cloth  six  to  eight  inches 
wide  and  of  any  length  from  ten  to  fifty  yards,  and  is 
wound  around  the  head  in  innumerable  ways,  each  style 
having  a  different  name.  The  pagri  is  common  to  the 
Hindus.  The  cap  or  topi  is  very  often  made  of  cloth, 
though  in  Bengal  and  Western  India  generally  of  goat¬ 
skin.  These  caps  are  of  manifold  shape,  some  round, 
others  three-cornered  or  four-cornered,  according  to  the 
custom  of  the  above-named  group.  Parsis  of  both  sexes 
wear  a  cap  in  and  out  of  doors  and  deem  it  a  sin  to  un¬ 
cover  the  head. 

Body  Covering. — For  the  upper  part  of  the  body  the 
principal  article  of  clothing  for  Mohammedans  and  Sikhs 
is  the  hurta,  the  equivalent  of  the  European  shirt.  It  is 
usually  of  white  cotton  and  may  have  an  opening  at  the 
front,  back,  or  at  either  side.  It  is  generally  fastened  by 
the  ghundi  (old  form  of  button)  and  tukmak  or  loop. 
Some  Hindus  of  the  upper  castes  also  wear  the  hurta; 
but  more  common,  especially  among  the  lower  castes,  is 
the  dhoti,  a  piece  of  white  cloth  wound  around  the  loins. 
The  dhoti  of  a  Brahman  reaches  below  the  knee,  while 
that  of  a  Kajput  reaches  to  the  ankle.  Mussulmans  and 
Parsis  wear  baggy,  flowing  trousers  varying  in  length, 
while  Sikhs  wear  knickerbockers.  Hindu  men  and  women 
use  earrings ;  Sikhs  have  an  iron  bangle  around  the  wrist, 


42 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


and,  in  general,  are  fond  of  jewelry.  Many  of  the  wealthier 
natives  living  in  cities  have  adopted  the  European  fashion 
of  dress. 

Shoes . — The  majority  of  natives  do  not  wear  shoes,  hut 
go  barefooted  almost  throughout  the  year.  However,  the 
wealthier  classes  are  fond  of  richly  embroidered  and  orna¬ 
mented  shoes,  made  usually  of  thin  red  leather.  People 
living  in  the  northern  hills  wear  a  kind  of  sandal,  made 
of  wood,  straw  or  grass. 

Clothing  of  Women .  Headdress. — Mohammedan,  Sikh 
and  Hindu  women  usually  plait  their  hair.  Hindu  women 
are  fond  of  a  number  of  plaits  made  into  one  large  plait, 
and  let  it  fall  down  the.  back.  Parsi  women,  however, 
dress  their  hair  after  the  old  Greek  fashion  with  a  knot 
behind.  The  veil,  differing  in  length  and  manner  of  wear¬ 
ing,  is  common  to  all  women,  at  least  out  of  doors.  In 
some  cases  it  is  very  long  and  draped  around  the  body 
as  is  fashionable  among  the  Parsi  women.  A  ring  in  the 
nose  distinguishes  a  married  from  an  unmarried  Mo¬ 
hammedan  woman.  In  the  latter  case  a  brighter  colored 
veil  is  worn. 

On  the  upper  part  of  the  body  women  generally  wear 
the  Jcurta  which  is  of  manifold  styles.  The  bodice  or 
waistcoat  is  also  worn  to  cover  the  breast  and  shoulders. 
Mohammedan  women  wear  the  pa’ e jamas  or  trousers  and 
in  this  consists  the  chief  distinction  between  their  dress 
and  that  of  other  Indian  women.  The  tillah  or  bright 
colored  robe  is  a  characteristic  of  Mohammedan  women  in 
Gujarat,  Rajputana  and  the  Sirsa  District.  Out  of  doors 
Mohammedan  women  wear  the  burJca ,  a  long,  loose,  white 
garment,  entirely  covering  head  and  body,  having  two 
holes  for  eyes.  They  pencil  the  eyes  with  Jcohl  or  surma , 
use  missi  for  the  teeth,  and  dye  their  hands  and  finger 
nails  with  henna.  Instead  of  trousers,  Hindu  women 
wear  a  skirt  called  ghagra,  or,  if  not  this,  the  sari ,  a  long 
piece  of  cotton  or  silk  cloth  draped  around  the  waist, 
which  falls  to  the  feet  in  folds,  and  whose  remainder  is 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


43 


passed  over  the  left  shoulder.  The  ghagra  is  customary, 
especially  in  Rajputana,  while  the  sari,  which  is  also  worn 
by  Par  si  women,  is  more  frequent  in  Bengal,  Madras  and 
the  Bombay  Presidencies.  Sikh  women  dress  very 
similarly  to  Hindu  women.  Native  Christian  women, 
while  following  in  the  main  the  prevailing  fashion 
of  dress,  have  made  some  slight  alterations  in  favor  of 
modesty. 

Native  Homes.  There  are  two  kinds  of  native  homes, 
those  of  the  wealthy  and  those  of  the  poor.  The  wealthy 
natives,  notably  in  Calcutta,  have  large  houses.  The 
patriarchal  system  in  vogue  mainly  among  the  higher 
grades  of  society,  according  to  which  the  members  of  three 
generations  live  together  and  lead  a  common  life,  calls 
for  spacious  homes.  The  home  of  a  wealthy  Indian  usually 
has  two  or  more  courts,  one  behind  the  other.  The  front 
court  is  occupied  by  the  men,  the  rear  court  by  the  women. 
In  the  rear  we  sometimes  find  a  room  with  latticed  galleries 
intended  for  worship,  and  a  walled  enclosure  for  bathing. 
Houses  may  also  be  of  two  stories,  in  which  case  the  upper 
story  is  of  larger  dimensions  and  projects  over  the  lower 
story  on  all  sides.  As  a  consequence  there  is  a  profusion 
of  shade  in  the  street.  The  upper  stories  of  a  double 
house  are  often  connected  by  a  small  bridge. 

Quite  different  from  these  and  by  far  more  numerous 
are  the  homes  of  the  poor.  Structures  of  mud  or  matting 
with  tiled  or  thatched  roof,  a  latticed  window  or  two  to 
admit  light  and  air,  and  sometimes  a  veranda  where 
guests  are  received — is  the  common  boast  of  the  poor. 
Unattractive  as  is  the  exterior  of  the  average  Indian’s 
home,  the  interior  is  even  more  so.  Some  of  the  more 
wealthy  and  more  progressive  natives  furnish  their  homes 
in  European  style,  but  these  are  in  the  minority.  Hence, 
we  more  generally  find  no  chairs  or  tables;  only  a  low 
stool,  a  rude  cot  without  a  mattress,  a  loose  mat  for  the 
accommodation  of  a  visitor,  a  box  or  two  for  storing  away 
jewelry,  best  clothes  and  other  valuables,  and  countless 


44 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


earthen  pots  for  cooking  and  holding  provisions  complete 
the  stock  of  furniture. 

Meals. — The  most  serious  part  of  the  day’s  business  in 
the  Indian  family  is  the  preparation  of  the  meal.  The 
principal  food  of  the  natives  is  rice,  peas,  beans  of  various 
kinds,  vegetables  and  greens,  bread  made  of  wheat,  barley 
and  corn,  etc.  Bread  is  baked  in  a  very  primitive  manner. 
A  handful  of  flour  is  mixed  with  water  and  kneaded  into 
dough.  Loaves  of  a  half  inch  in  thickness  are  then  rolled, 
and  baked  for  three  minutes  over  the  fire.  Meat  is  seldom 
eaten,  owing  to  the  religious  precepts  of  the  people.  Fish, 
however,  serves  as  a  delicious  substitute.  Fish  are  very 
plentiful  in  the  rainy  seasons,  and  every  schoolboy  goes 
fishing  in  his  leisure  hours.  Milk  is  enjoyed  when  sour 
and  thick.  The  Indians  cook  their  food  in  brazen  vessels. 
At  meal  time  all  squat  on  the  floor  with  crossed  legs  and 
eat  with  their  fingers.  The  housewife  brings  the  meal 
separately  to  each  member  of  the  family  and  immediately 
withdraws.  The  older  sons  and  young  girls  of  five  or  six 
years  eat  with  the  father,  and  afterwards  the  older  daugh¬ 
ters  and  small  boys  eat  with  the  mother.  Be  it  said  to  the 
credit  of  Hindu  men  and  children,  they  are  not  so  help¬ 
less  and  dependent  on  the  women  for  cooking  as  men  and 
children  of  other  countries,  but  almost  every  man  and 
child  of  seven  or  eight  years  can  prepare  the  ordinary 
daily  meal. 

Recreation. — Amusements  do  not  assume  a  prominent 
place  in  the  Indian’s  life.  The  principal  games  of  the 
children  are  variations  of  marbles,  pussy  in  the  corner, 
blindman’s  buff,  hide  and  seek,  odd  or  even,  etc.  Adults 
indulge  in  wrestling,  acrobatic  performances,  jugglery, 
fireworks,  chess,  nautch  dancing,  etc.  Of  course,  all  are 
passionately  fond  of  theatrical  representation,  music  and 
song.  Frequently  throughout  the  year  each  village  has  its 
natak  and  tamasha.  The  natak  is  akin  to  our  drama,  but 
the  speaking  roles  are  largely  interspersed  with  singing. 
The  principal  characters,  especially  during  the  climax  of 


Tills  Hut  Means  Home  to  a  Poor  Family  of  India. 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


45 


the  play,  do  not  speak,  but  sing  their  cues.  The  tamasha 
is  made  np  of  songs  and  musical  dances,  and  is  usually 
performed  at  dusk  in  the  temples.  The  songs  are  set  to 
a  catchy  melody  and  repeated  so  often  throughout  the  per¬ 
formance  that  at  the  end  the  audience  knows  them  by 
heart  and  long  afterwards  can  be  heard  singing  them.  The 
most  unfortunate  thing  about  the  theater  is  its  immorality. 
The  indecent  deeds  of  the  gods  are  often  sung  and  enacted. 

Indian  Etiquette. — On  entering  a  strange  house  the 
polite  Hindu  will  not  remove  his  turban,  but  his  shoes. 
Indeed,  to  remove  the  headdress  of  whatever  kind,  is  an 
act  of  discourtesy;  to  strike  it  off,  a  deep  insult.  The 
native,  when  making  calls,  never  rises  to  depart  until  dis¬ 
missed  by  the  host,  which,  among  Mohammedans,  is  done 
by  offering  betel,2  and  sprinkling  rose  essence;  and  with 
Hindus,  by  hanging  wreaths  of  flowers  around  the  visi¬ 
tor’s  neck.  Discourteous  Englishmen  frequently  offend 
Hindu  guests  with  an  emphatic  “Ab  Jao  ”  “Now  go.”  A 
less  offensive  dismissal  is  to  say:  aCome  and  see  me  again 
soon,”  or,  “Always  make  a  practice  of  visiting  my  house,” 
which  will  be  speedily  understood.  It  is  always  disre¬ 
spectful  to  use  the  left  hand  in  salutation,  eating,  or  on 
any  occasion  when  it  can  be  avoided.3 

Marriage. — The  most  important  and  most  engrossing 
event  in  a  Hindu’s  life  is  marriage.  It  is  a  subject  of 
endless  conversation  and  lengthy  preparation.  Childhood 
marriage,  though  common  to  all  castes,  is  most  strictly  ob¬ 
served  by  the  Brahmans.  Often  there  is  a  ridiculous  dif¬ 
ference  of  age  between  the  husband  and  the  wife.  An  old 
man  of  sixty  or  more,  who  lost  his  first  wife,  is  frequently 
espoused  to  a  mere  child  of  six  or  seven  years.  The  wed¬ 
ding  itself  entails  great  expense,  and  among  all  the  castes 
it  is  customary  for  poor  men  to  enter  the  services  of  rela¬ 
tions  or  of  other  people  of  their  caste  who  have  marriage- 

2  A  climbing  species  of  pepper.  Its  leaves  and  seed  are  chewed 
as  tobacco  in  the  East. 

3  ~New  American  Cyclopaedia,  Vol.  IX,  p.  183. 


46 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


able  daughters,  on  the  condition  that  the  employer  give 
his  daughter  in  marriage  and  pay  all  the  expenses  for 
the  wedding.  The  inclinations  of  the  persons  about  to  be 
married  are  seldom  consulted.  The  choice  is  left  to  the 
parents,  who,  as  soon  as  they  have  discovered  a  suitable 
girl  and  have  ascertained  that  her  family  are  likely  to 
assent,  go  formally  to  ask  for  her.  On  arriving  at  the 
girl’s  home  they  make  known  the  object  of  their  visit. 
Before  replying  the  girl’s  parents  stare  steadfastly  toward 
the  south  awaiting  the  sharp  cry  of  one  of  those  little  house 
lizards  crawling  about  the  walls.  Only  when  the  lizard 
of  the  south  has  spoken  do  the  parents  give  their  consent 
and  accept  the  presents  offered  by  the  petitioning  guests. 
Preparations  are  begun  for  elaborate  ceremonies  which 
last  for  five  days.  Endless  cleaning  and  decorating  of  the 
bride’s  home  usher  in  the  solemn  event.  A  great  pandal 
or  canopy  is  erected,  and  an  image  of  the  god  Yigneshwara 
is  enthroned  beneath  it.  To  him  all  pray  for  the  aversion 
of  any  misfortune  during  the  celebration  of  the  marriage. 
Then  all  attendants  anoint  their  heads  with  oil  of  sesa- 
mum,  the  gods  and  ancestors  are  invoked  and  invited  to 
the  feast.  For  five  days  there  is  a  succession  of  typical 
ceremonies.  The  bride  is  given  to  her  husband  by  her 
father,  who  renounces  all  authority  over  her.  The  husband 
fastens  a  tali  around  his  wife’s  neck  to  &how  that  hence¬ 
forth  she  is  his  own  property.  On  the  fifth  day  a  mag¬ 
nificent  banquet  is  given.  First  the  guests  eat  in  silence, 
and  then  a  special  meal  is  prepared  for  the  wedded  pair. 
Usually  in  the  evening  the  nuptials  are  brought  to  a  close 
by  a  noisy  procession  through  the  streets.  Torchlights 
are  carried  and  fireworks  are  put  off.  All  participants  in 
the  procession  are  gaudily  attired  in  silks  sparkling  with 
jewels.  Gifts  are  showered  on  the  newly  married  couple; 
but  in  reality  they  are  only  lent,  for  the  donors  them¬ 
selves  expect  to  receive  them  back  on  similar  occasions. 
These  wedding  parades  are  sometimes  very  beautiful,  but 
hardly  according  to  our  taste.  Although  the  wedding 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


47 


feast  of  the  poor  class  is  not  so  elaborate,  still  they,  too, 
spare  neither  pains  nor  expense  in  making  this  occasion 
as  imposing  as  possible. 

Funerals. — A  Hindu  funeral  is  attended  with  many  de¬ 
grading  ceremonies,  born  of  the  grossest  superstition.  As 
soon  as  the  sick  man  expires  all  present  must  burst  into 
tears.  So  strict  is  this  rule  of  lamentation,  that  some¬ 
times  crying  rehearsals  are  held  a  few  days  before  the 
pagan’s  death,  so  that  all  may  strike  the  proper  tone  and 
pitch  when  the  dread  moment  comes.  As  soon  as  the 
person  has  died  the  barber  is  called  to  shave  the  dead 
person’s  head  and  prepare  the  body  for  the  funeral.  A 
wreath  of  flowers  is  placed  around  the  neck,  and  a  piece  of 
sandalwood  upon  the  forehead.  The  body  is  then  laid  on 
a  bier  and  remains  exposed  to  view  until  the  funeral, 
which  is  held  the  same  day.  When  the  time  comes  for  the 
funeral  the  corpse  is  wrapped  in  a  white  cloth  and  the 
chief  mourner  gives  the  signal  for  the  funeral  cortege. 
Walking  before  the  corpse,  the  chief  mourner  carries  an 
earthen  pot  containing  the  coals  of  fire  for  the  crema¬ 
tion. 

Cremation  on  the  Shores  of  the  Ganges. — While  Mo¬ 
hammedans  and  Hindus  of  lower  castes  bury  their  dead, 
Hindus  of  higher  castes  have  for  thousands  of  years  trav¬ 
eled  to  the  Ganges  River,  or,  if  too  poor,  have  in  many 
cases  made  provisions  for  having  their  bodies  cremated  on 
the  shores  of  the  Ganges.  The  human  ashes  are  consigned 
to  the  “Sacred  River,”  whereby,  it  is  believed,  the  soul 
is  wonderfully  transformed.  The  criminal  whose  ashes 
are  scattered  in  the  “Sacred  River”  is  wholly  purified  and 
born  again  as  a  Brahman  or  a  god.  The  ceremony  of 
burning  the  bodies  presents  a  most  gruesome  and  revolting 
picture.  The  whole  shore  of  the  Ganges  is  strewn  with 
human  ashes.  Here  and  there  we  see  piles  of  human 
bodies  all  ablaze.  Before  them  stand  the  coolies  naked 
and  dripping  with  sweat,  stirring  up  the  funeral  piles. 
The  fakirs  shrieking  like  demons  hold  their  wake,  while 


48 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


pious  Hindus  purify  themselves  in  the  holy  waters.  Fre¬ 
quently  pieces  of  half-burnt  bodies  are  seen  afloat  in  the 
stream  and  are  preyed  on  by  vultures.  A  greater  prof¬ 
anation  of  the  lifeless  body  can  scarcely  be  imagined,  yet 
Hindus  deem  it  a  most  sacred  act  of  worship.  But  the 
actual  cremation  of  the  Hindu  corpse  is  the  least  trouble¬ 
some  of  the  ceremonies.  For,  from  the  moment  death 
takes  place  in  the  family,  all  the  relatives  of  the  deceased 
are  considered  unclean,  and  for  thirty  days  are  expected 
to  purify  themselves  by  countless  baths  and  works  of 
penance.4 

Social  Organization.  Caste. — The  most  unique  feature 
of  the  social  organization  of  India  is  the  division  of  the 
people  into  distinct  classes  known  as  castes.  The  origin 
of  the  caste  system  is  not  clearly  known,  but  it  is  believed 
to  be  rather  a  political  or  social  than  a  religious  institu¬ 
tion.  Few  Indians  care  for  what  their  neighbor  believes, 
but  all  inquire  whether  they  may  eat  with  him,  or  take 
water  from  his  hands.  “The  real  cause  of  the  caste  sys¬ 
tem,7’  says  Father  Houpert,  S.J.,  “is  that  spirit  of  selec¬ 
tion  and  exclusiveness,  due  to  a  variety  of  conditions, 
which  has  worked  for  centuries  and  split  society  into  a 
thousand  fragments.77  5  The  ancient  Hindu  Law  Books 
divide  the  people  into  four  groups: — The  Brahmans,  or 
priests;  the  Kshatriya,  or  warriors;  the  Vaisya,  or  farm¬ 
ers;  and  the  Sudra,  or  laborers.  These  four  clearly  de¬ 
fined  castes  are  no  longer  so  distinct,  and  instead  of  four, 
their  number  is  legion.  In  1905,  the  Brahmans  had 
nearly  two  thousand  subdivisions;  the  Vaisya  and  Sudra 
are  endlessly  subdivided.  Castes  and  sub-castes  are  al¬ 
ways  in  the  making ;  change  of  religion  is  enough  to  create 
them.  The  census  of  1911  shows  in  the  Madras  Presi¬ 
dency  alone  479  sets  of  people,  each  with  its  distinctive 
label.6  Inferior  to  the  four  principal  castes  are  the  pariahs 

4  Dahlmann,  Indische  Fahrten,  Freiburg,  Vol.  I,  1908,  p.  262. 

6  The  Madura  Mission  Manual ,  Trichinopoly,  1916,  p.  19. 

®  Ibidem,  p.  20. 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


49 


or  outcasts,  who  are  considered  an  utterly  vile  and  con¬ 
temptible  sect. 

The  outstanding  features  of  the  caste  system  are  the 
following :  All  persons  are  bound  by  heredity  to  a  certain 
occupation  and  religion,  and  to  change  the  one  or  the 
other  entails  expulsion  or  social  ostracism;  eating  is  re¬ 
stricted  to  food  prepared  by  a  member  of  one’s  own  caste, 
or  in  accordance  with  carefully  prescribed  rules,  by  a 
member  of  a  higher  caste;  marriage  must  be  contracted 
between  members  of  the  same  caste ;  contact  with  members 
of  a  lower  caste  engenders  pollution,  the  removal  of  which 
is  accomplished  by  elaborate  purifications  and  divers  cere¬ 
monies.  The  consequences  of  these  social  principles,  if 
rigidly  insisted  on,  as  they  frequently  are,  cannot  be  ex¬ 
aggerated.7  Thus  until  the  British  Government  abolished 
it  in  1850,  a  loss  of  caste  involved  a  complete  loss  of  civil 
rights  and  property.  In  Malabar  a  man  of  high  caste 
may  kill  a  man  of  lower  caste  for  touching  him  even  acci¬ 
dentally.  The  lower  castes  live  in  the  most  servile  sub¬ 
jection,  the  sacred  writings  may  not  be  read  in  their 
presence,  nor  may  the  Brahmans  counsel  or  instruct  them. 
Caste  is  the  dominating  factor  of  Indian  life.  From  the 
cradle  to  the  grave  all  actions  are  regulated  by  caste. 
Even  the  Mohammedans,  whose  leading  doctrine  is  the 
equality  of  all  men  before  Allah,  have  succumbed  to  the 
caste  system.  More  than  twenty-eight  thousand  Moham¬ 
medans  claim  to  be  Sheiks;  over  a  million,  to  be  Saiads; 
nearly  three  million,  to  be  Jolahas,  etc.  The  caste  rules 
of  Mohammedans,  however,  do  not  seem  so  inflexible  as 
those  of  Hindus,  as  the  proverb  current  in  Northern  India 
shows :  “Last  year  I  was  a  J  olaha ;  to-day  I  am  a  Sheik ; 
next  year  if  the  prices  rise  I  shall  become  a  Saiad.”  8 

The  Village  System .  Local  Panchayat. — By  virtue  of 
the  village  system  each  Indian  village  or  township  has  its 
own  headman  or  chief,  and  is  a  small  republic  managing 

T  Abb6  Dubois,  op.  c.,  pp.  38,  39. 

8  Richter,  History  of  Indian  Missions,  1908,  pp.  20,  21. 


50 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


its  own  internal  affairs,  taxing  its  own  members,  having 
its  own  police  or  chauhidars ,  and  being  responsible  for  all 
property  stolen  within  its  limits.  The  panchayat ,  a  time- 
honored  institution  in  the  village,  constitutes  a  local  court 
consisting  of  five  elders.  It  is  invested  with  judiciary 
powers  to  decide  petty  quarrels  and  punish  minor  offenses. 
Each  village,  likewise,  repairs  its  roads  and  public  edifices, 
maintains  the  public  worship  and  supports  the  poor.  For 
all  these  duties  proper  officers  are  provided,  who  are  paid 
by  fees,  either  of  money  or  of  produce,  such  as  wheat, 
rice,  barley,  etc. 

Some  Indian  Religious  Customs.  Superstitious  Wor¬ 
ship  of  Animals. — The  natives  of  India  are,  one  might 
say,  compounded  of  superstitions.  This  is  due  to  their 
religion,  the  particular  shade  of  which  is  betokened  by  the 
different  marks  of  paint,  ashes  or  dung  smeared  on  their 
foreheads.  Their  fanatic  belief  in  the  transmigration  of 
souls  has  necessarily  led  to  the  exaltation  of  the  brute  and 
to  the  utter  degradation  of  the  human  being.  In  an  end¬ 
less  change  of  foolish  rites  and  customs,  reverence  and 
adoration  are  shown  to  the  ugliest  and  fiercest  beasts.  In 
Benares  there  is  a  most  venerable  temple,  Durga  Khond, 
better  known  as  the  monkey  temple.  On  entering  the 
“sacred”  fane  a  throng  of  apes  leap  to  greet  you.  Hindus 
believe  that  the  “divine”  blood  of  the  immortal  primitive 
ape  still  flows  in  the  veins  of  every  ape,  hence  the  curious 
and  superstitious  cult  of  the  monkey  tribe.  An  unseemly 
sight  it  is  to  see  the  bold  creatures  roam  the  temple,  climb 
the  pillars  and  swing  on  the  arches.  All  at  once  they 
scramble  to  the  floor,  each  eager  to  be  the  first  to  gulp  down 
the  sweets  thrown  extravagantly  to  them  by  the  worshipers. 
Having  licked  every  crumb  from  the  floor  they  jostle  one 
another  about,  make  all  sorts  of  grimaces  and  greedily 
beg  for  more.  A  disgusting  sight,  these  specimens  of 
Hindu  “divinities,”  yet  millions  approach  them  with  aw^e, 
and  glory  in  being  permitted  to  tread  the  “sacred  pre¬ 
cincts”  of  their  temple.  Monkeys  bound  freely  through 


Fakir  of  Delhi — The  Long  Finger  Nails  Brahman  Reading  from  a  Book  of  Palm 

Render  the  Left  Hand  Practically  Use-  Leaves. 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


51 


the  streets,  play  in  gardens,  and  perform  all  manner  of 
indecencies  on  trees  and  roofs.  Woe  to  the  unfortunate 
person,  who  by  maltreating  the  ape  sins  against  the 
“divinity.”  9 

“Holy”  Coivs  and  Bulls. — Another  essential  Hindu 
tenet  is  to  pay  honor  to  the  cow  and  the  bull.  These  ani¬ 
mals  are  permitted  to  wander  through  the  streets  whither¬ 
soever  their  “divine  instinct”  may  lead  them,  and  they 
have  unrestricted  access  to  vegetables  and  fruits  which 
they  find  in  their  path  or  on  display  at  the  bazaars.  Cer¬ 
tain  marks,  known  to  the  Brahmans  alone,  render  a  cow 
or  a  bull  “holy,”  and  it  is  a  great  grace  for  a  Hindu  to 
have  a  cow  or  a  bull  worthy  of  the  name.  In  general  the 
Hindu  will  kill  no  animal,  because  he  is  assured  it  con¬ 
tains  the  soul  of  his  ancestor.  Not  only  the  pariah,  but 
also  the  Bajput  swarms  with  small  creeping  animals. 
Yes,  superstition  has  driven  this  degraded  people  so  far 
as  to  build  hospitals  for  aged  animals.  In  all  larger 
cities  such  hospitals  are  found.  Even  the  serpent  and 
all  kinds  of  dangerous  worms  are  worshiped  in  India,  and 
although  thousands  die  yearly  of  snake  bites,  the  Hindu 
will  never  destroy  a  serpent. 

Pilgrimages  to  “ Holy  Places P — The  religious  history 
of  Hindu  India  is  contained  in  the  history  of  Benares,  the 
“Indian  Borne,”  and  of  the  Ganges,  the  “Holy  Biver.” 
Benares  is  the  center  of  religious  cult,  the  holiest  and 
most  venerable  city  of  India.  Year  in,  year  out,  Benares 
is  the  goal  of  countless  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  India. 
All  professions,  classes,  races  and  languages  are  repre¬ 
sented — the  yellow  Mongol  from  the  Himalayan  valleys 
walk  side  by  side  with  the  dark  brown  Dravida  of  the 
south.  Whole  families,  even  half  the  inhabitants  of 
villages,  wander  through  Benares  together.  Marathi, 
Bengali,  Telugu  and  Tamil  tongues  are  heard  on  all  sides. 
Every  pious  Hindu  should  visit  at  least  once  in  his  life 
the  “Holy  City,”  and  bathe  in  the  “Sacred  Stream.” 
eDahlmann,  Indische  Fahrten,  Vol.  I,  p.  237. 


52 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


Those  who  cannot  come  usually  send  others  in  their  stead. 
One  pilgrim  measured  with  the  length  of  his  body  the 
entire  distance  from  Gwalior  to  Benares,  a  stretch  of  about 
three  hundred  miles.  Months  and  months  are  spent  in 
journeying  to  this  stronghold  of  Hindu  superstition,  and 
when  at  length  the  goal  is  reached,  nothing  but  a  group 
of  nude,  sensual  gods  and  goddesses  look  down  in  stolid 
greeting  upon  the  pilgrim. 

Fakirs  and  Penitents. — There  are  people  in  India  who 
lead  an  austere  life  which  is  as  degrading  as  it  is  un¬ 
reasonable.  These  are  known  as  fakirs  and  penitents. 
They  generally  discard  all  clothing,  save  a  rag  about  the 
loins,  often  retire  into  the  wilderness,  eat  nothing  but 
roots,  sleep  on  the  bare  ground  and  let  themselves  be  tor¬ 
tured  by  all  kinds  of  vermin.  Some  enter  into  a  hollow 
tree,  the  inner  side  if  which  is  sharply  pointed  with  nails, 
so  that  the  penitent  finds  no  place  to  lean  without  wound¬ 
ing  himself.  Others  stand  for  years  with  outstretched 
arms,  so  that  by  and  by  the  whole  body  becomes  numb. 
Penitents  have  been  known  to  close  their  hands  and  keep 
them  in  that  position  until  the  fingernails  grew  through 
the  palms  and  protruded  from  the  back  of  the  hands. 
Many  stare  at  the  sun  until  it  blinds  them,  or  sit  between 
fires  and  roast  gradually  to  death.  One  was  seen  to  stand 
on  his  head  for  hours  at  the  entrance  to  a  temple  on  Mount 
Abu.  These  are  but  a  few  samples  of  Hindu  penance, 
and  they  are  mostly  so  unworthy  of  man  that  we  turn 
in  disgust  from  them.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  from 
four  to  five  million  such  ascetics  and  pious  frauds  in 
India. 

From  the  perusal  of  the  foregoing  pages  we  cannot 
but  be  impressed  by  the  very  strangeness  of  the  Indian 
people.  Their  outstanding  feature,  whether  we  consider 
them  individually  or  collectively,  is  a  slavish,  superstitious 
traditionalism,  which  renders  any  departure,  however 
insignificant,  from  ancient  conviction  or  practice,  odious 
and  damnable.  Social  usages,  impossible  in  our  country 


MANNEBS  AND  CUSTOMS 


and,  indeed,  in  any  other  country,  are  the  same  in  India 
to-day  as  they  were  thousands  of  years  ago.  Even  the 
long  and  close  contact  with  Europeans  has  as  yet  effected 
within  three  centuries  little  or  no  change  in  the  time- 
honored  customs  of  Indian  society. 


CHAPTER  V 


EDUCATION 

Prom  time  out  of  mind  India  has  been  a  land  of  schools, 
of  literature  and  of  philosophy,  all  of  which  have  been 
intimately  bound  up  with  the  religious  beliefs  of  the  peo¬ 
ple.  The  principal  religion,  Brahmanism,  brought  Torth 
the  Yedic  and  Sanskrit  Literatures,  the  Brahmans  or 
priestly  class  and  the  caste  system,  in  a  word,  all  that  in 
the  course  of  ages  has  vitally  influenced  the  growth  and 
character  of  education,  whereas  the  other  religions  culti¬ 
vated  the  Pali  and  Prakrit  languages.  To  form  an  ade¬ 
quate  idea  of  the  educational  development  of  India  would 
necessitate  a  thorough  study  and  mastery  of  her  religions. 
A  formidable  task  this ;  and  quite  beyond  the  scope  of  our 
present  purpose.  Hence,  we  must  content  ourselves  with 
giving  the  bare  outline  of  educational  growth. 

Efforts  of  the  Natives.  Hindu  Higher  Education. — In 
primitive  times  the  Brahmans  had  the  monopoly  of  educa¬ 
tion.  Teachers  and  lawgivers  of  the  people,  guardians  of 
the  Yedic  hymns  and  authors  of  the  commentaries,  rituals 
and  mythologies,  the  Brahmans  rigidly  determined  the 
limits  of  knowledge  for  the  lower  castes.  Moreover,  owing 
to  the  difficulty  of  learning  Sanskrit,  the  language  of  the 
Brahmanic  school,  but  few  were  able  to  worship  at  the 
shrine  of  learning.  For  the  vast  majority  higher  educa¬ 
tion  meant  nothing  more  than  learning  by  rote  the  hymns, 
prayers  and  religious  ceremonies.  The  Brahmans,  how¬ 
ever,  spent  no  effort  on  educating  girls.  “To  educate  a 
woman  and  to  give  a  monkey  a  sharp  knife  is  the  same 
thing,”  runs  the  Law  of  Manu,  the  Moses  of  India.  A 

54 


EDUCATION 


55 


few  women  of  very  low  moral  caliber  who  were  to  serve 
as  dancers  and  singers  in  the  temples  learned  to  read  and 
write,  but  their  chief  training  was  in  singing  and  danc¬ 
ing.  In  the  earliest  Brahmanic  schools,  sacred  literature 
together  with  the  national  epics  and  a  crude  form  of 
science,  also  of  Brahmanic  origin,  commensurate  only  to 
the  exigencies  of  worship,  were  the  substance  of  Hindu 
higher  education.  But  with  the  social  development,  the 
educational  system  also  expanded.  Schools  of  literature, 
law,  philosophy,  medicine  and  astronomy  came  into  being.1 
Mathematics  received  special  attention,  and  to  India  we 
owe  our  wrongly  so-called  Arabic  numerals. 

Hindu  Lower  Education. — While  the  schools  of  higher 
education  were  limited  to  the  region  north  of  the  Vindhya 
Range,  lower  education  spread  throughout  entire  India. 
The  village  school  (pathsala) ,  like  the  village  system  was 
founded  on  the  Sastras,  or  Books  of  Sacred  Laws,  and 
formed  an  integral  part  of  the  village  life.  Under  a  wide- 
spreading  tree,  or  in  a  convenient  shed,  the  village  school¬ 
master  assembled  the  boys  of  from  five  to  ten  or  twelve 
years  of  age  and  taught  them  penmanship,  multiplication, 
money  values,  weights  and  measures.  In  the  beginning 
the  pupils  traced  letters  and  figures  on  the  ground  with 
their  fingers.  The  more  advanced  scholars  wrote  on  palm 
leaves  or  on  prepared  wooden  tablets  with  a  reed  pen 
dipped  in  charcoal  ink.  Down  to  the  sixth  century  before 
Christ  writing  was  unknown.  In  this  century  the  alpha¬ 
bet  was  first  introduced.  In  the  absence  of  books,  instruc¬ 
tion  was  oral  and  in  the  vernacular.  The  discipline  was 
strict,  not  to  say  heartlessly  cruel.  Failure  to  measure  up 
to  the  required  tasks  meant  standing  on  one  foot  for  a 
half  hour,  or  suspension  of  the  culprit  head  downwards 
from  the  nearest  tree. 

Mohammedan  Education. — Unlike  the  Brahmanic  edu¬ 
cational  system,  Mohammedans  advocated  universal  in¬ 
struction  and  bestowed  educational  advantages  on  women 
1  Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  s.  v.  Education  in  India. 


56 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


as  well  as  men.  In  the  sixteenth  century,  five  centuries 
after  Islam’s  arrival  in  India,  every  mosque,  like  the  cathe¬ 
drals  of  medieval  Europe,  had  its  school  attached,  in 
which  children  were  taught  the  Arabic  alphabet  and  select 
verses  from  the  Koran.  Higher  education  also  was  in  a 
rather  flourishing  stage,  and  in  the  schools  supported  by 
imperial  grants  and  private  bounty,  Arabic,  Persian, 
rhetoric,  logic,  literature,  law  and  undeveloped  forms  of 
science  were  taught.  Mohammedan  schools  are  still  in 
existence  to-day  and  together  with  Brahmanic  schools 
number  about  40,000.2 

Transition  Period .  Catholic  Missionaries. — The  en¬ 
tire  period  from  the  sixteenth  to  the  nineteenth  century 
may  be  regarded  as  a  period  of  transition  from  ancient 
to  modern  conditions.  With  the  advent  of  the  Catholic 
missionaries  in  the  sixteenth  century  the  Brahmanic  and 
Mohammedan  systems  of  education  began  to  shift.  Firm 
advocates  of  the  principle,  “First  a  school,  then  a  church,” 
the  missionaries  gathered  the  children  together  and  in¬ 
structed  them  in  the  rudiments  of  secular  as  well  as  of 
religious  knowledge.  It  was  to  be  expected  that  the  mes¬ 
sengers  of  the  Gospel  would  bring  with  them  traditions 
of  their  homeland ;  hence  their  methods  bore  the  stamp  of 
European  influence.  Studying  the  language  of  the  na¬ 
tives,  they  began  to  impart  the  substance  of  lower  educa¬ 
tion  in  the  vernacular,  while  employing  their  own  lan¬ 
guage  as  the  medium  of  higher  education.  This  method 
so  commended  itself  that  when  the  English  Government 
assumed  control  of  education  in  India  in  the  nineteenth 
century  (1854),  it  built  up  its  system  on  the  foundation 
laid  by  the  early  missionaries. 

Missionary  Linguists. — To  achieve  success  with  the  In¬ 
dians  the  missionaries  saw  at  a  glance  the  necessity  of 
mastering  the  countless  Indian  languages  and  literatures. 
They  had  to  meet  the  Indian  on  common  ground,  converse 
with  him  in  his  own  tongue,  know  his  religious  traditions 

2  M onroe’s  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  1.  c. 


EDUCATION 


57 


and  tenets,  be  able  to  refute  them  and  present  the  true 
doctrine  of  Christianity  with  force  and  precision.  With 
this  in  view  the  missionaries  set  themselves  to  study  the 
Indian’s  languages,  and  to  translate  important  Indian 
books  into  modern  European  languages  and  vice  versa. 
Their  efforts  in  this  work  laid  the  foundation  of  modern 
Oriental  philology.  St.  Francis  Xavier  himself  set  the  ex¬ 
ample.  To  him  is  ascribed  the  authorship  of  the  first  book 
printed  in  India,  Catechismo  da  Doctrina  Christiana. 
His  companion,  Fr.  Henrico  Henriquez,  S.J.  (died  1600), 
wielded  a  prolific  pen.  His  compositions  comprise  a  gram¬ 
mar  and  dictionary  in  Tamil,  two  catechisms,  Lives  of 
Christ,  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  of  other  Saints,  and 
many  other  apologetic  and  devotional  works.  A  place  of 
honor  is  duly  assigned  to  the  Jesuit,  Joseph  Constantine 
Beschi,  who  acquired  such  perfection  in  Tamil  that  he 
wrote  prose  as  well  as  poetry  with  almost  the  same  ease  as 
his  mother  tongue.  By  his  masterful  poem,  Tembavani, 
written  in  honor  of  St.  Joseph,  he  has  won  himself  a  place 
among  the  foremost  poets  of  India.3  One  of  the  first  mis¬ 
sionaries  to  distinguish  himself  in  the  study  of  Konkani 
was  Thomas  Stephens,  S.J.  His  perfect  acquaintance  with 
this  language  is  nowhere  more  in  evidence  than  in  the 
Fur  ana,  a  work  setting  forth  the  mysteries  of  the  Catholic 
Faith  in  poetic  form.  Even  to-day  his  work  is  popular 
among  native  Catholics.4 

Among  the  noted  Franciscan  linguists  we  may  mention 
Fr.  Manuel  Banha,  the  author  of  a  dictionary  in  Kon¬ 
kani  ;  and  Fr.  Amador  de  Santa  Anna,  who  translated  the 
excellent  work,  Flos  Sanctorum,  into  Kanari.  A  schol¬ 
arly  Konkani  grammar  was  the  fruit  of  the  pen  of  the 
Carmelite,  Fr.  Francis  Xavier  de  Santa  Anna. 

The  eminent  ethnologist,  Max  Mueller,  cedes  to  de 
Nobili,  S.J.,  the  honor  of  being  the  first  European  to 

8  Dahlmann,  Die  Sprachlcunde  und  die  Missionen ,  Freiburg,  1891, 
p.  13. 

*  Ibidem ,  p.  15. 


58 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


master  Sanskrit.5  The  Jesuits,  Henry  Roth  (died  1668) 
and  Hanxleden  (died  1732),  were  clever  students  of  San¬ 
skrit  and  produced  valuable  works  in  that  language.  Their 
brethren  Calmette  (died  1740)  and  Coeurdoux  attracted 
much  attention  in  learned  European  circles  by  their  liter¬ 
ary  achievements  in  Sanskrit. 

The  first  European  to  turn  books  from  Sanskrit  into  a 
modern  European  language  (Italian)  was  the  Capuchin, 
Joseph  Bernini  (died  176 1).6  The  translation  of  the 
celebrated  epic  poem,  Bamayana ,  the  Vishnu  Parana,  be¬ 
sides  two  other  larger  and  numerous  smaller  works,  are 
from  his  pen. 

Bernini  was  likewise  a  profound  scholar  of  Hindus¬ 
tani.  As  collaborator  with  Cassian  Beligatti,  O.M.Cap., 
he  composed,  among  numerous  apologetical  works  in  Hin¬ 
dustani,  the  Dialogue ,  a  valuable  work  setting  forth  proofs 
for  the  Catholic  Doctrine.  This,  Bernini  presented  to 
the  King  of  Bettiah  in  1751.  The  first  grammar  in  Hin¬ 
dustani  was  published  by  the  same  Cassian  Beligatti  in 
1771. 7  The  Catholic  translation  of  the  New  Testament 
in  Hindustani  appeared  for  the  first  time  in  September 
1864  from  the  fertile  pen  of  Anastasius  Hartmann,  O.  M. 
Cap.  He  is  also  the  author  of  a  catechism  in  Hindustani, 
which  met  with  favor  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal  to  the  con¬ 
fines  of  Persia.8  Er.  Francesco  Orazio  della  Pennabilli, 
O.M.Cap.  (died  1745),  is  the  father  of  the  Tibetan  phil¬ 
ology.  He  translated  three  larger  works  from  Tibetan 
into  Italian  and  rendered  Cardinal  Bellarmine’s  Christian 
Doctrine ,  Thurlot’s  Catechism ,  and  Salian’s  Church  His¬ 
tory  into  the  Tibetan  and  Nepalese  languages.  A  Tibetan- 

6  Ibidem,  p.  17. 

6  Rocco  da  Cesinale,  Storia  delle  Missioni  del  Cappuccini,  Tom. 
Ill,  Roma,  1873,  pp.  742-746  and  275-276. 

TThe  full  title  of  this  grammar  is  Alphabetum  Brammhanicum  seu 
Indostanum,  Romse,  Propaganda  Fidei,  1771.  It  is  still  extant.  All 
otner  Hindustani  grammars  are  of  a*later  date.  For  a  list  of  such 
grammars  cf.  Zenker’s  Bibliotheca  Orientalis,  Leipzig,  1846. 

8  Adrian  Imhof  und  Adelhelm  Jann,  O.  M.  Cap.,  Anastasius  Hart- 
mwnn,  Luzern,  1903,  p.  535. 


EDUCATION 


59 


Italian  and  Italian-Tibetan  dictionary  of  35,000  words, 
published  by  J.  Marshmann  at  Serampur  in  1826  by  the 
Baptist  Missionary  Press,  is  also  a  credit  to  his  industry 
and  scholarship.  The  Augustinian,  A.  Aug.  Giorgi  (died 
1797)  published  at  Pome  (1762)  the  first  Tibetan  gram¬ 
mar  (Alphabetum  Tibetanum) ,  and  the  aforesaid  Cassian 
Beligatti  the  second  Tibetan  grammar  ( Alphabetum  Tan- 
gutanum  sive  Thibetanum)  at  Borne  in  1773.  Fr.  An¬ 
tonins  Pezzoni,  O.M.Cap.  (died  1844),  is  the  author  of 
a  Hindustani  grammar,  the  translator  of  forty-four  Lives 
of  Saints  and  other  works  into  the  same  language,  and  of 
the  Pentateuch  into  Sanskrit.  The  Carmelite,  Paulinus 
a  S.  Bartholomaeo  (died  1805),  is  the  author  of  the  first 
Sanskrit  grammar  (Alphabeta  Indica) ,  published  at  Rome 
in  1790. 

Under  such  ministers  of  the  Gospel  education  could 
not  but  make  steady  and  substantial  progress.  Catholic 
schools  and  colleges  were  opened  as  the  need  for  them 
arose.  Then,  as  now,  the  Jesuits  proved  themselves  good 
educators.  Of  them  a  Protestant  writer  says:  “It  can 
not  be  denied  that  the  Jesuits  were  great  masters  in  the 
art  of  instruction,  and  the  advances  which  the  Christians 
of  Pondicherry  have  made  in  the  language  and  principles 
of  European  knowledge,  is  an  eminent  proof  of  the  ability 
of  those  Fathers.”  9  And  about  the  Holy  Name  University 
of  Bandra  (1575)  Dr.  da  Cunha  writes:  “Thousands 
of  Indian  families  had  been  converted  to  Christianity, 
and  from  these  the  early  British  Government  drew  their 
supply  of  clerks,  assistants  and  secretaries.  They  were 
the  first  fruits  of  the  education  imparted  by  the  Por¬ 
tuguese  Priests  at  a  time  when  hardly  any  Hindu,  Moslem 
or  Parsi  could  read  the  Roman  characters.”  10 

Protestant  Missionaries. — Protestantism,  though  in  ex¬ 
istence  since  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  had  sent 

#T.  W.  M.  Marshall,  Christian  Missions,  Vol.  I,  p.  257. 

10  J.  C.  Houpert,  S.  J.,  Madura  Mission  Manual,  Trichinopoly, 
1910,  p.  140. 


60 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


no  missionaries  to  India  until  the  eighteenth  century. 
The  first  Protestant  missionaries  to  set  foot  on  India’s 
soil  were  the  German  Lutherans,  Ziegenbalg  and  Pleut- 
schau.  They  began  their  missionary  career  in  1706.11  At 
first,  they  endeavored  to  convert  the  natives  by  means  of 
preaching  and  by  distributing  literature.  Having  failed 
to  achieve  results,  they  undertook  the  establishment  of 
schools,  in  which,  besides,  the  three  P’s,  geography,  astron¬ 
omy,  history  and  natural  philosophy  were  taught.  The 
more  prominent  of  Protestant  ministers  to  open  schools 
were  Schwarz,  Marshman  and  Duff.  Duff  was  the  first 
of  the  Protestants  to  make  English  a  medium  of  educa¬ 
tion  and  he  founded  a  school  at  Calcutta  in  1830.  Normal 
schools  for  training  native  teachers  according  to  Western 
methods  were  also  opened. 

Despite  the  means  at  their  disposal  and  the  prestige  of 
the  government,  the  Protestants  had  little  or  no  success. 
In  1845,  the  Basle  Mission  Society  opened  a  school  in 
Neilgherries  and  literally  paid  one  hundred  boys  for  com¬ 
ing  to  school.  In  1862  Mr.  Clements  Markham  examined 
the  work  of  the  Protestant  missionaries  and  reported: 
“They  have  schools  and  labor  amongst  the  Bagagas,  but  as 
yet  with  scarcely  any  success.”  12  The  representatives  of 
Protestantism  in  India  may  have  been  actuated  by  pure 
motives,  but  it  is  a  fact  of  history  that  they  gained  little 
or  nothing  for  the  cause  of  Christian  education.1 3 

During  the  transition  period  secular  schools  were  opened 
under  private  management,  alongside  with  the  missionary 
institutions,  chief  among  which  were  the  Mohammedan 
College  in  Calcutta  founded  in  1780  by  Warren  Hastings, 
and  the  Sanskrit  College  established  at  Benares  in  1791 
by  a  wealthy  resident  of  that  city.  In  1823  the  College 
of  Agra  was  opened  and  in  1824  a  Sanskrit  college  at 
Calcutta.  The  year  1835  witnessed  the  endowment 

31  Julius  Richter,  A  History  of  Missions  in  India,  p.  103. 

“Marshall,  Christian  Missions,  Vol.  1,  pp.  324,  325. 

13  Ibidem,  pp.  278-303. 


EDUCATION  61 

of  a  medical  college  at  Calcutta  by  Lord  William  Ben- 
tinck. 

The  East  India  Company’s  Attitude  toward  Educa¬ 
tion. — The  educational  endeavors  heretofore  considered 
were  mainly  native  or  missionary  undertakings.  While 
India  was  under  the  East  India  Company  more  than  two 
hundred  years  elapsed  before  its  masters  awoke  to  their 
grave  responsibility  in  regard  to  education.  Only  in  1813 
did  this  Company  take  action  in  educational  matters  and 
appropriate  the  annual  sum  of  100,000  rupees  (approxi¬ 
mately  $50,000)  for  promoting  education.  This  sum  was 
largely  expended  in  scholarships  to  enable  promising 
students  to  attend  the  existing  schools.  In  1823  began 
what  is  known  as  the  “Educational  Conquest  of  India.” 
The  move  was  inaugurated  by  Governor  Mountstuart  El- 
phinstone,  who  advocated  a  better  and  higher  education 
of  the  natives  along  European  lines.  A  committee  of 
instruction  was  created  to  take  charge  of  the  annual  ap¬ 
propriations  and  of  the  schools  and  colleges  which  had 
come  under  government  control.  Local  school  committees 
were  also  appointed  and  no  stone  was  left  unturned  to 
advance  the  natives’  education  so  long  neglected. 

The  Language  Question. — A  great  difficulty,  however, 
lay  in  the  way.  If  Indians  were  to  be  taught  European 
literature  and  science,  what  language  should  be  employed 
as  a  medium  ?  A  brief  mention  of  the  many  and  contrast¬ 
ing  tongues  of  India  will  suffice  to  show  what  a  perplexing 
problem  awaited  solution.  After  thirty  years  of  patient 
toil  the  British  Government  has  only  recently  succeeded 
in  classifying  the  languages  of  India  under  nine  families 
comprising  one  hundred  and  forty-seven  distinct  vernacu¬ 
lars.  The  more  important  of  these  families  are  the  Dra- 
vidian  and  the  Indo-European.  The  former  is  restricted 
to  the  Deccan  and  numbers  fourteen  languages,  including 
the  four  literary  languages  of  the  south ;  the  latter  is  prev¬ 
alent  in  Northern  India  and  embraces  twenty-five  lan¬ 
guages,  the  most  important  of  which  is  Hindustani.  This 


62 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


language  dates  back  to  the  conquest  of  Delhi  at  the  close 
of  the  twelfth  century  and  is  spoken  by  more  than  100, 
000,000  inhabitants.  The  articulate  expressions  of  some 
of  these  languages  are  limited  to  a  few  hundred  words, 
whilst  others  have  an  abundant  vocabulary;  some  are  en¬ 
tirely  devoid  of  inflection,  whereas  others  can  compare 
with  the  classical  languages.  Besides  the  native  tongues, 
European  languages  are  also  spoken  quite  extensively, 
particularly  English,  French  and  Portuguese. 

Triumph  of  English. — It  was  long  disputed  whether 
the  language  of  higher  education  should  be  English,  Hin¬ 
dustani,  Bengali,  or  another  of  the  native  languages.  The 
debate  lasted  for  some  years  and  reached  a  climax  in  1835, 
when  the  opportune  arrival  of  Lord  Macaulay  in  India 
as  the  legislative  member  on  the  council  of  the  governor- 
general  settled  the  controversy  in  favor  of  the  English 
language.  English  schools  were  subsequently  opened  in 
all  provinces  and  regardless  of  caste,  Christian,  Moham¬ 
medan  and  Hindu  came  together  to  study  English.  The 
desire  for  a  knowledge  of  English  was  the  sign  not  so 
much  of  an  inclination  toward  modern  learning  as  of  a 
passion  for  an  immediate  means  of  livelihood  and  a  pass¬ 
port  to  the  favor  of  the  rulers.  While  the  study  of  English 
flourished,  the  classic  learning  of  the  Indians  was  not 
allowed  to  decline.  In  1839  an  annual  grant  of  25,000 
rupees  was  devoted  to  its  maintenance. 

Great  Britain  at  the  Helm  of  Indian  Education. — The 
next  important  step  in  the  history  of  Indian  education  was 
taken  in  1854,  when  instead  of  the  East  India  Company, 
the  English  Government  assumed  full  control.  The  char¬ 
ter  of  education  insisted  principally  on  the  following:  (1) 
establishment  of  a  Department  of  Public  Instruction  and 
of  a  university  in  each  presidency;  (2)  government  sup¬ 
port  of  training  schools  for  teachers;  (3)  maintenance  of 
existing  government  colleges  and  high  schools  and  their 
increase  when  necessary;  (4)  opening  of  new  middle 
schools  and  increased  attention  to  the  vernacular  and  other 


EDUCATION 


63 


elementary  schools;  (5)  inauguration  of  the  “grant-in- 
aid”  system  whereby  also  private  schools  receive  govern¬ 
mental  support  provided  they  comply  with  prescribed 
conditions. 

Revisions  of  the  System. — In  1858,  when  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  India  passed  from  the  Company  to  the  English 
Crown,  neither  energy  nor  funds  were  spared  to  advance 
education.  But  since  the  system  in  vogue  failed  to  cope 
with  the  needs  of  the  ignorant  masses,  Lord  Ripon,  Vice¬ 
roy  of  India,  appointed  a  commission  in  1882  to  look  after 
the  education  of  women  and  of  the  backward  races.  As 
a  result  more  attention  was  given  to  primary  schools.  The 
commission  also  created  the  office  of  Director  General 
of  Education  and  introduced  quinquennial  reports  re¬ 
garding  the  status  of  education  in  whole  India.  In  1904 
another  revision  of  the  government  system  took  place 
under  Lord  Curzon  whose  reforms  called  especially  for 
higher  schools  of  agriculture  and  of  technical  arts  and 
the  introduction  of  science  in  secondary  schools.  In  this 
same  year  the  universities,  which  by  their  examinations 
and  by  their  power  of  affiliating  colleges  controlled  higher 
education,  were  authorized  to  inspect  the  colleges  and 
secondary  schools  and  to  provide  for  the  promotion  of 
study  and  research. 

Administration. — At  the  head  of  the  educational  sys¬ 
tem  is  the  Director  of  Education  at  Calcutta.  This 
official,  however,  has  no  authority  over  schools  and  col¬ 
leges.  He  supervises  the  whole  system  indirectly  through 
the  distribution  of  the  government  appropriations.  The 
Board  of  Education  in  each  province  has  the  direct 
administration  of  public  education.  A  number  of  men 
and  women  inspectors  under  the  direction  of  this  board 
examine  every  school  and  class  annually,  in  order  to 
determine  the  amount  of  the  grant  to  each.  These  in¬ 
spectors,  the  principals  and  a  certain  proportion  of  the 
professors  of  the  government  colleges  are  drawn  from 
England.  * 


64 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


Further  Details  of  the  System . — The  whole  system  of 
education  in  India  is  divided  into  fourteen  grades  or 
“standards”  each  of  a  year’s  duration.  The  elementary 
classes  comprising  four  years  are  called  the  primary  de¬ 
partment.  The  secondary  department  includes  a  six  years’ 
course,  the  first  three  of  which  are  spent  in  the  middle 
school  and  the  other  three  in  the  high  school.  The 
four  grades  above  the  high  school  are  called  academic 
classes,  the  first  two  grades  of  which  prepare  for  the 
examination  termed  “First  in  Arts”  (F.  A.),  while  the 
last  grades  prepare  for  the  “Bachelor  of  Arts”  (B.  A.).  In 
some  parts  of  India  another  course  of  two  years  is  added 
in  preparation  for  the  highest  academic  examination,  that 
of  the  “Master  of  Arts”  (M.  A.).  These  six  years  of 
advanced  study  compose  the  “College”  in  the  technical 
sense  and  mark  the  completion  of  the  educational  system. 
We  distinguish  (a)  art  colleges,  of  which  the  majority 
are  English  and  a  few  Oriental,  and  (b)  professional  col¬ 
leges  of  law,  medicine  and  engineering.  They  are  divided 
into  first,  second  and  third  grades  according  to  the  de¬ 
grees  for  which  they  prepare.  Promotion  from  one  grade 
to  another,  i.e.,  from  the  primary  to  the  middle  school 
and  so  on,  and  also  to  the  three  degrees,  is  by  means  of 
public  examinations.  These  are  conducted  by  the  uni¬ 
versities  and  are  nearly  all  written. 

Classification  of  Institutions. — In  India  not  only  those 
institutions  which  are  established  and  maintained  by  the 
state  are  classed  as  public,  but  also  those  private  institu¬ 
tions  which  are  recognized  by  the  government  whether 
they  receive  government  aid  or  not.  Educational  institu¬ 
tions,  public  or  private,  are  commonly  divided  into  (a) 
indigenous,  (6)  vernacular,  (c)  public  and  (d)  mission¬ 
ary.  In  indigenous  schools  education  is  carried  on  in  the 
vernacular  by  the  natives  according  to  their  old  methods 
regardless  of  the  ordinary  rules  of  the  Department  of 
Education.  In  vernacular  schools  education  is  likewise 
imparted  in  the  vernacular,  but  according  to  the  require- 


EDUCATION 


65 


ments  of  the  government.  Public  schools  are  similar  to 
the  public  schools  in  our  country  and  missionary  schools 
resemble  our  parochial  schools.  Only  a  trifle  more  than 
fifteen  per  cent  of  India’s  schools  are  strictly  public 
schools,  i.e.,  established  and  maintained  by  the  govern¬ 
ment  alone;  of  the  rest  a  little  over  half  receive  govern¬ 
ment  aid. 

Curriculum. — Formerly  reading,  writing  and  arith¬ 
metic  were  taught  in  the  primary  schools.  To-day  geog¬ 
raphy,  history,  hygiene,  agriculture,  singing,  recitation 
and  physical  exercise  are  additional  compulsory  branches. 
The  optional  branches  are:  English,  Persian  and  manual 
work  for  pupils  above  the  infant  classes.  An  important 
feature  of  this  curriculum  is  that  it  is  always  adjusted 
to  the  needs  of  the  pupils;  therefore,  the  study  plan  of 
urban  schools  differs  from  that  of  rural  schools.  Most 
parents  who  are  willing  to  keep  their  boys  at  school  to 
the  age  of  fifteen  prefer  an  Anglo-vernacular  school,  since 
even  a  smattering  of  English  has  value  in  clerical  em¬ 
ployment.  In  the  secondary  schools  the  courses  of  study 
depend  upon  the  university  to  which  they  are  affiliated. 
The  following  studies  are  the  general  course:  English, 
mathematics,  history,  geography,  another  language  be¬ 
sides  English,  classical  languages,  an  Indian  vernacular 
and  science.  Some  of  these  are  compulsory,  others  elec¬ 
tive.  The  curriculum  of  the  college  is  in  accord  with  its 
purpose. 

Enrollment. — The  total  number  of  pupils  enrolled  in 
educational  institutions  on  March  31,  1919,  was  7,936,577, 
divided  as  follows:  50,730  students  attended  the  art  col¬ 
leges;  13,100,  the  professional  colleges;  1,212,133,  the 
public  secondary  schools;  5,941,482,  the  public  primary 
schools;  20,633,  the  public  training  schools;  100,585, 
other  public  special  schools;  597,914,  private  institutions. 
The  grand  total  of  7,936,577  comprises  6,623,149  males 
and  1,313,428  females.  It  is  particularly  interesting  to 
note  the  importance  now  attaching  to  the  education  of 


66 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


girls.  This  increased  attention  to  the  members  of  the 
weaker  sex  reaches  to  the  very  root  of  the  social  life  and 
marks  the  breaking  np  of  a  most  stubborn  traditional  cus¬ 
tom.  At  the  end  of  the  official  year  of  1918-1919  there 
were  23,351  educational  institutions  for  girls  and  women 
with  an  enrollment  of  1,3 13,42 8. 14  This  total  marks  an 
increase  of  733,780  above  the  total  of  579,648  in  1907. 
In  the  absence  of  the  regular  incumbents,  on  military 
service,  lady  professors  have  been  temporarily  and  suc¬ 
cessfully  appointed  in  colleges  for  Indiap  youths. 

Expenditure. — The  total  cost  of  public  education  for 
the  official  year  1918—1919  was  Rs.  129,863,073.  Of  this 
sum  Rs.  4,397,221  were  expended  on  the  universities. 
Rs.  91,849,130  is  the  amount  of  direct  expenditure  on 
public  instruction;  and  Rs.  33,616,722,  the  total  of  in¬ 
direct  expenditure.15  The  salary  of  teachers  is  assuming 
greater  importance  than  formerly.  Salaries  range  from 
Rs.  15  to  Rs.  25  per  month  for  beginners  and  rise  as  high 
as  Rs.  60  for  others.  In  some  sections  teachers  receive 
as  high  as  Rs.  400.  The  primary  school-teacher  receives 
from  Rs.  15  to  Rs.  35.16 

Latest  Educational  Project ,  Self-Supporting  Schools. — 
The  latest  move  in  educational  circles  is  that  of  the  “In¬ 
dian  Self-Supporting  Educational  Colonies  Association.” 
The  principle  of  this  scheme  is  that  students  support 
themselves  while  learning  a  trade.  “The  long  period  of 
training  should  be  divided  into  two  parts,  first  the  school¬ 
ing  which  could  last  up  to  twelve  or  fourteen  or  there¬ 
abouts,  secondly  a  period  of  educative  productive  employ¬ 
ment,  lasting  two  or  more  years  and  during  the  latter 
period  the  well-trained  youths  would  be  able  to  pay  by 
their  labor  for  their  whole  education  and  training.”  17  The 
founder  of  this  Association  is  Captain  J.  W.  Petavel  and 

14  Indian  Education  in  1918-1919 ,  Government  Report,  1920,  p.  23. 

10  Ibidem,  pp.  5,  24,  25. 

10  Ibidem,  p.  6. 

17  Times  of  India,  July  24,  1914. 


Two  Prominent  Lawyers— Products  of 
India’s  Schools. 


EDUCATION 


67 


the  movement,  though  supported  by  the  University  of  Cal¬ 
cutta  and  by  many  prominent  men  in  India  and  England, 
is  nevertheless  pronounced  utopian  by  others. 

Comments  on  Results. — In  the  face  of  all  that  is  done 
for  promoting  India’s  education  we  naturally  expect  to 
hear  something  of  results.  What  are  the  material  benefits 
of  the  English  system  of  education?  We  answer,  the 
fruits  of  England’s  efforts  show  themselves  in  the  Press, 
vernacular  as  well  as  English,  in  the  proceedings  of 
the  educational  conferences,  in  the  National  Indian  Asso¬ 
ciation,  in  the  Indian  National  Congress  and  in  the 
scientific  movements  initiated  and  financed  by  native 
citizens.  In  like  manner  the  new  religious  organizations, 
the  Brahmo  Samaj  and  the  Ary  a  Samaj,  have  borrowed 
many  religious  conceptions  from  the  West.  In  short, 
W.  W.  Hunter,  an  eminent  English  leader  in  India,  puts 
it:  the  “higher  state  of  society”  and  the  “nobler  ideal  of 
domestic  and  individual  life”  to  which  the  natives  are 
advancing  has  its  root  in  the  schools  modeled  after  Eng¬ 
lish  type.18 

But  while  this  is  true  of  the  more  well-to-do  and  city 
population,  the  village  people,  in  the  words  of  Basanta 
Koomar  Boy,  “have  no  educational  advantages  worthy  of 
the  name.”  19  The  great  lack  in  India  is  the  free  primary 
school.  The  result  of  this  is  that  eighty  out  of  a  hundred 
children  of  school-going  age  grow  up  without  any  school¬ 
ing.  The  bulk  of  the  Indian  people  live  in  villages,  and 
the  proportion  is  one  school  to  seven  villages.  The  census 
of  1911  showed  that  only  106  males  and  ten  females  per 
thousand  could  read  and  write.  In  1920  about  ninety- 
four  per  cent  of  the  population  were  illiterate.20  Thus 
after  England’s  rule  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  in 
India  illiteracy  is  still  rampant. 

w  Monroe’s  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  s.  v.  Education  in  India. 

19  America,  Vol.  XXI,  1919,  p.  541. 

30  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  Supplement  I,  Vol.  XVII,  1922,  p.  395. 


CHAPTER  VI 


LITERATURE  AND  THE  FINE  ARTS 

Literature  and  the  fine  arts  are  units  in  the  scale  of 
measurements  for  marking  off  the  progress  and  civiliza¬ 
tion  of  nations.  As  cultural  elements  of  a  nation  are 
strong  and  developed,  to  that  degree  is  a  nation  strong 
and  influential  in  the  world  about  it.  If  we  apply  this 
to  India  we  must  conclude  that  she  stood  foremost  in 
civilization  among  the  nations  of  the  East  in  the  centuries 
long  preceding  the  Christian  era. 

Until  the  last  centuries,  however,  Indian  culture,  “one 
of  the  oldest  and  most  remarkable  in  the  world/’  was  for 
the  Western  nations  well-nigh  a  sealed  book.  It  is  true, 
after  the  military  excursion  of  Alexander  the  Great,  India 
and  the  Eastern  nations  were  no  longer  utterly  isolated 
from  the  Western  civilized  world,  but  there  was  as  yet  no 
steady  intercourse  between  them.  The  physician  Ktesias, 
on  his  return  to  Greece  from  the  Court  of  Artaxerxes 
Memnon,  358  b.c.,  brought  with  him  most  wonderful 
fables  of  the  unknown  land,  and  Megasthenes,  after  he 
had  visited  India  about  300  b.c.,  described  for  his  country¬ 
men  the  characteristics  of  the  land  and  its  people.  But 
Rome  and  the  European  peoples,  down  through  the  Middle 
Ages,  never  knew  or  even  dreamt  of  the  treasure  of  litera¬ 
ture  and  art  that  lay  hidden  in  far-away  India.  Even 
after  the  Portuguese  had  opened  a  route  to  India,  conquest 
and  enrichment  were  the  primary  interests.  Soldiers 
and  merchants  were  the  first  guests  in  the  new  land,  not 
the  artist  and  the  student.  It  remained  for  the  missionary, 
who  of  necessity  studied  the  language  of  the  people,  to 

68 


LITERATURE  AND  THE  FINE  ARTS 


69 


unearth,  first  of  all,  the  rich  literary  treasures  and  to  open 
the  road  to  the  scholarly  Orientalist. 

Indian  Literature 

“Among  all  the  ancient  literatures,”  says  Professor 
Macdonell,  “that  of  India  is  undoubtedly  in  intrinsic 
value  and  aesthetic  merit  second  only  to  that  of  Greece.”  1 
We  might  separate  Indian  literature  into  two  main  sec¬ 
tions:  Sanskrit  literature  or  classical  Indian  literature 
and  Prakrit  or  vernacular  literature.  Sanskrit  literature 
again  is  divided  into  two  periods,  namely  that  of  Indian 
antiquity,  which  comprises  the  Vedic  literature  (so  called 
from  Veda ,  i.e.,  knowledge  or  lore),  and  the  literature  of 
the  Indian  Middle  Ages,  or  the  classical  Sanskrit  (the 
literature  of  the  superior  Indian  castes). 

The  Vedic  Literature. — The  Vedic  literature  is  the 
sacred  literature  of  India,  and  is  looked  upon  as  divinely 
inspired  by  the  majority  of  the  Indian  peoples.  Por  this 
reason,  it  has  been  carefully  guarded  by  the  Brahmans, 
the  priestly  caste,  down  through  the  ages,  and  has  become 
a  fountain  and  norm  for  all  future  religious  speculation 
among  the  Hindus.  It  is  divided  into  four  collections, 
which  form  also  the  literature  of  India  and  are  called : 
the  Rig-Veda  (Lore  of  Hymns),  the  Sama-Veda  (Lore  of 
Chants),  the  Yajur-Veda  (Lore  of  Prayers)  and  the 
Atharva-Veda  (Lore  of  Spells). 

Of  these  the  oldest  and  most  important  is  the  Rig-Veda , 
parts  of  which  date  back,  perhaps,  to  2400  b.c.  It  is  made 
up  of  1,028  almost  exclusively  religious  hymns.  The 
authorship  of  these  hymns  is  ascribed  to  a  number  of 
generations  of  Brahmans.  The  children  of  these  priests 
preserved  the  part  of  their  fathers’  making,  and  delivered 
it  again  orally,  as  a  precious  heritage  to  their  children, 
until  the  cantos  were  finally  collected  into  the  one  sacred 

1  Harold  Binns,  Outlines  of  the  World’s  Literature ,  St.  Louis, 
1908,  p.  8. 


70 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


book.2  The  hymns  are  sacred  lyrics  written  in  thirteen 
varying  meters,  and,  as  a  rule,  have  four  lines  to  the 
stanza  and,  on  the  average,  ten  or  twelve  stanzas  to  each 
hymn.  They  are,  in  the  main,  invocations  to  the  various 
deities,  the  Dawn,  the  Sun,  the  Wind,  the  Stars,  etc., 
which  the  Brahmans  worshiped.  Very  remarkable  among 
these  are  the  hymns  to  Varuna  (a  personification  of  Law) 
because  of  their  monotheistic  tendencies.  The  culture 
represented  in  these  simple  cantos  bears  an  idyllic,  naive,, 
patriarchal  stamp,  and  presents,  for  the  most  part,  a 
people  of  shepherds,  although  agriculture  was  fast  devel¬ 
oping  and  a  system  of  exchange  was  already  arranging  in 
the  very  small  towns. 

The  Sama-Veda  and  the  Yajur-Veda  were  made  up 
mostly  of  newly  arranged  extracts  from  the  Rig-Veda , 
and  were  used  along  with  it  in  the  public  religious  serv¬ 
ices  of  the  Brahmans  as  a  kind  of  ritual  and  hymn  book. 

The  Atharva-Veda ,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  private 
prayer  book  of  the  people.  It  contains  invocations  which 
are  to  give  protection  from  diseases  and  wild  animals; 
malediction  to  be  directed  against  one’s  enemies;  prayers 
for  protection  on  journeys;  prayers  for  luck  in  games, 
etc.  This  book  is  of  deep  linguistic  interest  as  being  the 
oldest  larger  body  of  Indo-European  prose. 

Closely  connected  with  these  four  great  sacred  books 
are  the  so-called  Brahmanas,  Amnyakas  and  Upanishads, 
commentaries  to  each  Veda,  in  which  the  doctrine  con¬ 
cerning  the  gods  and  the  ritual  is  explained  and  further 
developed.  The  substance  of  the  doctrine  contained  in  the 
Brahmanas  and  bearing  references  to  single  Vedic  pieces 
was  again  set  forth,  explained  and  supplemented  in  the 
so-called  Sutras ,  or  mnemonic  summaries,  but  in  such  a 
concise  style  that  it  became  well-nigh  unintelligible  to  a 
student  without  the  help  of  a  teacher. 

The  hymnody,  ritual,  mythology  and  philosophy  of  the 

2  A.  Baumgartner,  Gescldchte  der  WeltUteratur,  Freiburg,  1897, 
Vol.  II,  p.  2. 


LITERATURE  AND  THE  FINE  ARTS 


71 


Brahmans  thus  grew  into  a  rich  and  luxuriant  literature. 
The  rival  religion,  however,  of  Buddha,  or  Cakya-Munis, 
became  at  a  later  period  the  seed  for  a  new  mystic- 
philosophical  literature,  making  doubtful  which  would 
hold  supremacy  in  the  estimation  of  the  Indian  people, 
mysticism  or  philosophy. 

The  Sanskrit  Literature.  Mahabharata. — The  San¬ 
skrit  literature  may  be  said  to  begin  about  the  year  500 
b.c.  Its  earliest  and  greatest  achievements  are  undoubt¬ 
edly  the  two  epic  poems,  the  Mahabharata  and  the  Rama- 
yana.  Mahabharata  means  as  much  as  “the  great  poem  of 
Bharata” ;  the  name,  however,  of  Bharata  appears  in  the 
poem  itself  as  that  of  a  fabulous  king  and  his  tribe.  The 
Mahabharata  is  evidently  not  the  work  of  a  single  man, 
but  was  centuries  in  the  making.  It  is  an  epic  of  more 
than  200,000  lines  and  is  written  in  clokas,  a  trochaic 
meter,  the  peculiar  music  of  which  cannot  be  rendered  in 
translation.  Its  leading  theme  is  the  eighteen  days’  strife 
between  Duryodhana  and  Yudhishthira.  The  types  of 
kings  and  heroes  set  forth  in  this  poem  turn  one’s 
thoughts  unwittingly  to  the  kings  and  heroes  of  the  Greek 
classics,  of  Achilles  and  Hector,  of  Agamemnon  and 
Priam.  The  sad  fate  of  the  blind  King  Dhritarashtra 
reminds  one  of  the  King  of  Troy ;  Yudhishthira,  the  eldest 
of  the  sons  of  Pandu,  of  the  King  of  Achaia;  whilst 
Arjuna,  the  beloved  of  the  gods,  represents  Achilles;  and 
Kama,  in  many  respects,  Hector.  Hero  and  king  play 
apparently  the  leading  roles  in  the  epics  of  India,  but  only 
apparently.  Above  the  warlike  caste  of  Kshatriyas  stands 
a  higher,  the  highest  of  all  castes  of  India,  the  Brahman. 
Pomp  and  splendor  they  leave  to  the  reigning  kings;  the 
danger  and  the  glory  of  the  battlefields  they  give  gen¬ 
erously  to  the  soldiers ;  but  at  the  sacrificial  altar  they  take 
the  first  place.  They  are  of  divine  origin,  favorites  of  the 
gods ;  they  are  mediators  between  the  gods  and  men ;  even 
in  political  and  military  circles  they  are  believed  to  pos¬ 
sess  superhuman  power  of  decision,  and,  because  of  their 


72 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


austere  penances,  they  wield  an  influence  that  becomes 
dangerous  even  to  the  gods. 

Ramayana. — The  Ramayana  (the  song  of  the  deeds  of 
Rama)  is  the  second  great  national  epic  of  India.  About 
twice  the  length  of  the  Iliad ,  it  contains  approximately 
48,000  lines,  divided  into  seven  books  ( Kandas ),  each 
embodying  from  76  to  119  cantos.  The  great  epic  is 
ascribed  to  Valmiki,  but  there  is  no  certainty  as  to  the 
date  of  its  origin.  It  narrates  the  struggle  between  Rama, 
son  of  King  Dasaratha,  and  the  King  of  the  Southern 
Demons,  and  has  wielded  a  great  influence  upon  the 
Indian  literature  of  a  later  date.  This  epic  was  probably 
written  as  an  allegory  to  depict  “the  advance  of  Aryan 
civilization  into  the  wild  regions  of  the  south.”  3 

As  we  have  mentioned,  there  is  no  certainty  as  to  the 
date  of  origin  of  these  two  great  epics.  Most  philologists, 
however,  agree  that  they  were  written  no  later  than  the 
sixth  century  b.c.  During  the  next  thousand  years 
there  was  a  lull,  in  the  originality  at  least,  of  Indian 
poetry.  The  poetic  power  of  invention,  although  not 
completely  exhausted  in  these  two  great  epics,  never 
produced  anything  comparable  with  them  in  vastness 
and  loftiness  of  conception  or  in  exquisite  beauty  of 
poetic  form. 

The  new  interest  which  was  given  to  poetry  in  the  time 
of  Kalidasa  was  due  to  the  development  of  court  life  and 
the  dramatic  art.  The  poetry  of  these  later  days  is  no 
longer  of  an  ascetic  character  as  were  the  Vedic  hymns 
or  even  the  Mahabharata  and  Ramayana.  Luxury-loving 
men  and  court  ladies  became  the  sponsors  of  the  poets; 
and  Love,  the  main  theme  of  their  poetry.  The  epic  still 
flourished;  but  side  by  side  with  it  grew  up  the  lyric  and 
the  drama. 

It  is  impossible  in  these  pages  to  count  up  the  lesser 
poets  of  the  later  Prakrit  period  and  their  works.  We 

3  Library  of  the  World’s  Best  Literature,  N.  Y.,  1897,  Vol.  XIV, 
p.  7925. 


LITERATURE  AND  THE  FINE  ARTS  73 

will  confine  ourselves  to  the  greatest  poet  of  the  time, 
Kalidasa,  and  his  work. 

Kalidasa. — Kalidasa  has  been  styled  the  Indian 
Shakespeare.  He  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  fifth 
century  a.d.  As  Harold  Binns  remarks,  “even  less  is 
known — for  nothing  at  all  is  known — of  his  personality 
than  of  the  dramatist  whom  Baconians  style  the  discred¬ 
ited  dummy  of  Stratford.”  4  He  was  the  author  both  of 
Kavyas ,  court  epics,  and  of  Nat  okas,  lyrical  dramas.  His 
three  great  epics,  Raghuvamsa  (Kace  of  Bagha),  Kuma- 
rasambluiva  (Birth  of  the  War-gods)  and  Nalodaya  (a 
history  of  Nal  and  Damayanti)  are  all  based  upon  older 
epics  and  supplement  them.  Eor  their  brilliancy  in  de¬ 
scribing  natural  beauty,  however,  and  for  the  deep  emotion 
which  some  of  the  lyric  passages  of  these  epics  breathe, 
they  stand,  perhaps,  unsurpassed.  At  times,  however, 
true  emotion  gives  place  to  the  most  violent  obscenity. 
“Eor  the  most  part,”  says  A.  Weber,  “the  amatory  poetry 
of  India  is  unbridled,  and  excessively  sensual,  although 
one  occasionally  finds  a  ditty  of  tender  and  truly  romantic 
affection.”  In  his  Meghdata  (Cloud  Messenger)  and 
Ritusamhara  (Cycle  of  the  Seasons),  two  exquisite  pieces 
both  in  description  and  delicate  coloring,  Kalidasa  dis¬ 
plays  a  high  lyric  genius. 

Kalidasa’s  greatest  achievement,  however,  lies  in  his 
dramas.  Of  these,  three  have  been  preserved:  Cakuntala, 
Vikramorvaci  and  M  a  lavi  kagnimi  t  ra .  Cakuntala  is 
rightly  considered  the  poet’s  greatest  work.  The  material 
for  this  drama  was  taken  from  Mahabharata ;  but  Kali¬ 
dasa  has  chosen,  with  admirable  genius,  character  and 
action,  and  woven  of  them  a  wonderful  drama,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  developed  and  unfolded  poetic  elements 
which  were  contained  in  the  earlier  epic  as  in  a  germ. 
Of  this  drama  it  has  been  said  that  for  analysis  of  emotion 
it  will  well  sustain  comparison  with  the  great  dramas  of 
Europe. 

4  Harold  Binns,  op.  c.,  p.  12. 


74 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


In  many  ways  Sanskrit  literature  has  merited  the  title 
of  greatness  and  marvelously  influenced  the  literatures  of 
other  nations.  Even  such  men  as  Goethe  and  Schiller 
have  found  inspiration  in  its  magic  lore.  Sanskrit  has 
been  a  dead  language  for  the  past  two  thousand  years. 
At  the  present  time  the  people  of  India  speak  no  less  than 
220  different  vernacular  languages,  some  of  which  have 
attained  the  dignity  of  literary-  languages  and  form  a 
respectable  literature. 


Music 

Music  in  India  followed  in  the  wake  of  literature. 
The  Vedas,  especially  those  used  in  the  Liturgy,  were  put 
to  melody  at  an  early  date.  This  is  the  sacred  music  of 
India.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  Vedic  music.  It  was 
simple  or  solemn  as  occasion  demanded.  The  solemn 
music  used  at  the  Soma  sacrifice  was  polyphonic.  The 
choir  was  made  up  of  priestly  singers.  The  principal 
examples  of  this  sacred  music  are  contained  in  the  Sama- 
Veda,  also  styled  the  Indian  Book  of  Hymns.  In  the 
sacred  music  of  India  the  scale  did  not  comprise  a  full 
octave.  The  profane  music,  however,  had  a  range  of  about 
three  octaves  with  half  and  quarter  tones,  the  notes  of 
which  were  indicated  by  a  system  of  solmization  in  which 
the  set  of  syllables:  sa,  ri,  ga,  na,  pa,  dha,  ni,  were  em¬ 
ployed.  The  popular  songs  of  the  Indian  people  as  well 
as  the  sacred  hymns  were  arranged  for  the  various  days 
and  seasons  of  the  year,  and  these  various  periods  were 
celebrated  with  their  own  peculiar  song. 

The  principal  instruments  used  in  accompaniment  were 
the  Vina  (a  four-stringed  pick-instrument),  the  Sarangi 
or  Dilruba  (a  cello),  the  Magudi  (a  guitar),  the  Tumri, 
Tihtiri ,  Sanai  (all  wind  instruments),  and  the  Talam 
(cymbals). 


LITERATURE  ANT)  THE  FINE  ARTS 


75 


Architecture,  Sculpture,  Painting 

The  relics  of  the  architectural  art  of  India  are  almost 
exclusively  religious  monuments.  Beginning  with  the 
year  1250  b.c.  and  running,  each  through  a  thousand 
years,  we  find  three  distinct  periods  in  which  so  many 
schools  of  art  held  sway.  These  have  been  styled  the 
Old  Brahman  Art,  the  Buddhistic  Art  and  the  New 
Brahman  Art. 

Of  the  oldest  of  these  schools  no  relics  remain.  The 
perishability  of  materials  employed  in  their  erection,  and 
the  frailty  of  the  structure  of  the  arch  monuments  of 
this  period  explain  their  traceless  disappearance.  They 
were  done  in  wood,  stucco  and  brick,  and  these  could  not 
withstand  the  hot,  moist  climate  of  India.  Of  the  exist¬ 
ence  of  the  Old  Brahman  Art,  and  of  its  colorfulness  and 
grandeur  we  know  only  from  the  epics  of  the  times. 

Buddhistic  Architecture. — The  history  of  architectural 
art  in  India  begins  about  250  b.c.  with  the  transition  from 
wood  to  stone  structure.  The  stone  art  of  India  evidently 
sprang  from  the  religious  enthusiasm  of  King  Asoka,  who 
wished  to  give  to  the  many  art  buildings  and  monuments 
that  he  raised  in  honor  of  Buddha  an  eternal  existence. 
The  development  of  the  Buddhistic  Art  shows  traces  of 
influence  from  the  art  of  neighboring  empires,  particu¬ 
larly  from  that  of  the  Persians.  This  influence,  indeed, 
was  so  great  that  the  older  Buddhistic  Art  is  sometimes 
called  Persian-Indian  Art.  Foremost  among  the  pre¬ 
served  memorials  of  the  Buddhistic  Art  of  India  we  find 
commemorative  columns,  topes  and  cave  structures. 

The  first  of  these  rise  in  high  slender  shafts,  and  are 
capped  with  the  chalice-  and  bell-shaped  capital  of  Persia, 
which  is  divided  from  the  body  of  the  column  by  lines 
and  decorations  resembling  strings  of  pearls.  Sometimes 
also  the  neck  of  these  shafts  is  embellished  with  rich 
palmetto  and  lotus  ornaments  of  Western  art,  sometimes 
they  are  adorned  with  religious  symbols  such  as  a  spoked 


76 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


wheel  and  the  figures  of  elephants  and  lions.  Such  pillars 
as  these,  dating  hack  to  the  time  of  Asoka,  can  still  be 
seen  in  the  Ganges  Valley,  e.g.,  in  Delhi,  Allahabad,  Tir- 
hut  and  Sankisa. 

Topes  and  dagobas  are  the  technical  names  for  the 
domes  or  bubble-shaped  monuments  of  Buddha.  These 
have  been  preserved  in  great  number  and  are  sometimes 
merely  commemorative  of  Buddha,  in  which  case  they  are 
called  topes.  At  other  times  they  contain  a  relic  of  this 
great  reformer  and  then  they  are  dagobas.  These  monu¬ 
ments  form  the  characteristic  feature  of  national  Indian 
art. 

But  the  most  remarkable  monuments  of  this  land  of 
wonder  are  the  grotto  temples  and  cave  structures,  which 
were  sometimes  natural  caves  enlarged,  sometimes  temples 
chiseled  into  the  solid  rock.  These  temples  were  beautified 
with  all  manner  of  decorations,  the  central  figure  of  which 
was  that  of  Buddha.  However  admirable  and  wonderful 
these  temples  might  seem,  and  although  cave  structures 
have  been  found  dating  back  to  300  b.c.,  the  Buddhistic 
artist  might,  nevertheless,  be  called  an  explorer  in  this 
kind  of  architecture.  Its  fullest  development  was  realized 
only  in  the  following  period. 

The  only  Buddhistic  free  stone  structure,  the  building 
of  which  dates  back  to  the  time  of  Asoka,  is  the  renowned 
nine-story  temple  of  Buddha-Gaya  in  Magadha.  Asoka  is 
supposed  to  have  built  it  opposite  the  fig  tree  under  which 
Buddha  attained  the  highest  degree  of  enlightenment. 

Mention  of  the  Buddhistic  figures  leads  us  to  a  con¬ 
sideration  of  the  development  of  plastic  art.  The  plastic 
art  of  India  possesses  from  the  beginning  the  essential 
and  national  characteristics.  The  pliancy  of  form  and 
suppleness  of  the  members  of  the  body  of  the  Indian 
people  are  on  the  whole  mirrored  correctly  in  the  sculp¬ 
tor’s  art.  But  beyond  this  a  certain  bonelessness  and 
superficiality  in  the  plastic  fashioning  of  form  and  figure 
is  clearly  discernible.  Nowhere  do  we  find  personality 


An  Architectural  Gem, 


: 


* 


LITERATURE  AND  THE  FINE  ARTS 


77 


sharply  expressed ;  nowhere  do  we  find  the  outward  play  of 
muscles  reproduced;  nowhere  can  the  motive  of  action  be 
traced  back  to  anatomical  causality.  The  Indian  sculptor 
was  controlled  more  by  artistic  rules  than  by  rules  of 
natural  beauty  and  was  led  to  produce  phantoms  rather 
than  human  beings. 

Painting  seems  to  have  been,  for  the  most  part,  the  art 
of  women  and  dilettanti.  However,  it  also  frequently 
came  into  the  service  of  architecture  and  has  produced 
masterpieces.  Especially  remarkable  are  the  rich  floral 
designs  and  colorful  decorations. 

New  Brahman  Architecture. — The  New  Brahman 
Architecture  is  the  successor  and  heir  of  the  Buddhistic 
Architecture  of  India,  which  it  supplanted.  What  this 
new  school  developed  on  its  own  initiative  is  magnificent 
in  the  province  of  architecture,  not  remarkable,  however, 
is  its  sculptural  work  or  its  art  of  painting.  The  New 
Brahman  Art  has  given  to  India  those  powerful  temples, 
with  their  grand  conical  and  pyramidical  towers,  which 
we  are  wont  to  call  pagodas.  The  New  Brahman  artist, 
moreover,  took  the  cave  structure  of  the  Buddhist  and 
carried  it  to  its  fullest  development.  The  semicircle  of 
the  Buddhistic  temples  disappeared  and  in  its  stead  grew 
up  the  square  architecture  of  the  Brahman,  richer,  more 
luxurious  and  more  massive  by  far  in  its  decorations 
and  plastic  ornaments  than  was  that  of  its  Buddhistic 
masters. 

A  comparison  of  the  lesser  temples  of  Aiwulli  and  of 
Pittadkul,  both  in  the  west  of  India,  would  be  illustrative 
of  its  development.  The  first,  which  dates  back  to  the 
seventh  century  after  Christ,  still  possesses  the  Buddhistic 
semicircle.  But  even  here,  we  notice,  the  Brahman  aCell 
of  the  Gods’7  lias  been  substituted  for  the  dagoba;  while 
in  the  latter,  which  is,  perhaps,  a  few  centuries  younger, 
we  find  the  whole  form  of  architecture  changed  from  the 
round  to  the  square  form,  both  in  the  temple  proper  as 
also  in  the  structure  of  the  “Cell  of  the  Gods.”  Over  the 


78 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


Cell  arose  then  as  now,  upon  a  square  foundation,  the 
pyramidic  tower,  which  is  typical  of  the  Brahman  Art. 

The  most  renowned  cave  temples  of  the  Brahmans  can 
be  seen  at  Ellora,  Badami,  Mahavellipur,  south  of  Madras, 
and  on  the  Island  Elefanta  near  Bombay.  But  the 
Brahman  artist  took  his  boldest  step  when  he  began  not 
only  to  hollow  out  the  rocks  from  within,  but  to  cut  away 
the  rock  from  without,  giving  the  temple  the  appearance 
of  a  free  structure.  On  the  coast  of  Mahavellipur  such 
temples  as  these  were  called  Monolith-temples;  and  at 
Ellora  there  is  one,  even  more  famous,  known  as  Kailasa. 

The  temples  at  Mahavellipur  were  chiseled  out  of  free 
standing  rock,  but  their  interiors  were  never  completed. 
The  Kailasa ,  however,  which  is  also  interiorly  complete, 
is  cut  into  the  side  of  a  mountain.  Galleries  and  grottos 
deck  the  neighboring  wall  of  rock,  and  the  inner  and 
outer  walls  of  this  remarkable  structure  are  linked  with 
pilasters  and  niches,  and  adorned  with  the  most  varied 
groups  of  gods  and  animals. 

Indian  architecture  has  fostered  a  deep  dislike  for 
empty  walls.  The  wall  spaces,  both  within  and  without, 
are  covered  with  protruding  and  retreating  parts,  with 
pillars  and  niches,  and  almost  entirely  with  ornamenta- 
tion.  The  decorations  are  sometimes  minute  and  resemble 
the  fine  filigree  work  of  the  goldsmith ;  sometimes  they 
consist  in  rich  floral  ornaments,  while  at  other  times  they 
show  forth  the  most  luxuriant  plastic  works  of  animal  and 
human  forms.  Even  the  pillars  and  columns  unfold  an 
unending  variety  of  fantastic  forms. 

That  the  Indian  was  a  vigorous  and  clever  artist  is 
evident,  and  his  poets  have  taken  pains  to  record  the  fact. 


PART  II 


ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY 


CHAPTER  I 


PIONEER  MISSIONARIES:  52?-1498 

A  conscientious  historian  says  the  history  of  India  is 
both  ‘Tedious  and  confusing.”  The  latter  adjective  may 
well  apply  to  the  history  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  India 
during  the  first  sixteen  centuries.  Legends,  traditions  and 
conflicting  inscriptions  make  the  study  of  Indian  Church 
history  interesting  indeed,  but  equally  confusing.  Not 
infrequently  tradition  avers  something  which  further 
study  would  seem  to  deny. 

Dawn  of  Christianity . — The  first  Christian  missionary 
who  is  said  to  have  reached  India  was  none  other  than 
St.  Thomas,  one  of  the  Twelve.  The  Acts  of  St.  Thomas > 
ascribed  to  Abdias  of  Babylon,  relate  that  St.  Thomas 
came  to  Northern  India  about  the  year  52  a.d.  He  was 
employed  as  an  architect  by  a  certain  King  Gundafor, 
who  entrusted  him  with  the  erection  of  a  palace.  St. 
Thomas,  however,  built  not  a  material  but  a  spiritual 
palace  for  the  king  by  distributing  the  treasures  among  the 
poor,  to  whom  he  also  preached  the  Gospel.  In  his  mis¬ 
sionary  journeys  the  Apostle  is  said  to  have  come  to 
Southern  India,  where  he  closed  his  earthly  career  by 
laying  down  his  life  for  his  Divine  Master.  King  Misbai 
placed  the  martyr’s  crown  on  the  head  of  the  Apostle. 
The  martyrdom  took  place  in  the  year  67  a.d.  at  Little 
Mount  and  his  remains  were  buried  at  Mylapore,  the 
modern  city  of  Madras. 

This  tradition,  that  St.  Thomas  the  Apostle  preached  in 
India,  was  widely  spread  in  both  the  East  and  the  West 
during  the  first  centuries  of  Christianity  and  is  referred 

81 


82 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


to  in  the  writings  of  St.  Ephraem,  St.  Ambrose  and  others. 
Since  the  missionary  labors  of  St.  Thomas  in  India  bore 
little  or  no  lasting  fruit,  many,  rather  than  say  that  the 
mission  of  an  Apostle  was  a  failure,  are  led  to  deny  that 
St.  Thomas  was  in  India. 

Among  other  instances  mentioned  by  writers  who  believe 
that  St.  Thomas  was  in  India,  are  coins  bearing  inscrip¬ 
tions  referring  to  the  King  Gundafor  found  about  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  and  an  inscription  on 
the  Takht-i-Bahi  stone,  now  in  the  Lahore  Museum.  It  is 
not  our  purpose  here  to  discuss  the  historical  value  of 
these  sources.  More  importance  must  be  attached  to  the 
mention  of  the  mission  and  martyrdom  of  St.  Thomas  in 
the  martyrologies  and  the  liturgical  books  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  Some  writers  of  recent  date  have  taken  up  the 
study  of  this  tradition,  and  the  common  belief  seems  to  be 
that  St.  Thomas  was  in  India.1  Very  recent  discoveries 
by  Father  Hosten,  S.  J.,  throw  further  light  on  this 
important  question.2  Of  whatever  opinion  we  are  we 
cannot  deny  that  there  are  surviving  to  this  day  in 
Southern  India  traditions  to  show  that  an  Apostle  passed 
that  way.  These  traditions  are  tenaciously  held  by  the 
so-called  Thomas  Christians. 

St.  Thomas  Christians . — St.  Thomas  Christians  is  the 
name  of  an  ancient  body  of  Christians  living  on  the  east 
and  west  coasts  of  Southern  India,  who  claim  spiritual 
descent  from  the  Apostle  St.  Thomas.  They  are  natives 
of  the. land  by  birth  and  follow  the  Syrian  rite  in  their 
liturgy.  These  Christians  have  no  written  records  of  the 
incidents  of  their  social  life  from  the  time  of  their  first 
conversion  down  to  the  arrival  of  the  Portuguese,  just  as 
India  had  no  written  history  until  the  arrival  of  the 
Mohammedans.  Of  the  earliest  periods  of  ecclesiastical 

*Medlycott,  India  and  the  Apostle  St.  Thomas,  London,  1905; 
Dahlmann,  S.  J.,  Die  Thomaslegende,  Freiburg,  1912. 

2  Catholic  Missions ,  Vol.  XV,  1921,  p.  119  ff;  The  Catholic  Herald 
of  India,  March  2,  1921,  p.  175. 


PIONEER  MISSIONARIES:  52 P-1498 


83 


history,  however,  it  is  said  that  after  the  death  of  the 
Apostle,  his  disciples  remained  faithful  for  a  long  time 
and  were  zealous  in  the  propagation  of  the  F aith.  As  time 
went  on,  wars  and  famines  totally  dispersed  the  Christian 
communities  on  the  east  coast  and  many  again  fell  into 
idolatry.  Those  on  the  west  coast,  also  known  as  Malabar 
Coast,  preserved  the  Faith  longer. 

It  must  have  been  to  the  Malabar  Christians,  as  those 
living  on  the  Malabar  Coast  came  to  he  called,  that  St. 
Pantaenus  of  Alexandria  was  sent.  Eusebius  says  in  his 
Church  History  that  St.  Pantsenus  of  Alexandria  was 
active  in  India  about  the  close  of  the  second  century. 
Another  reference  to  these  Christians  we  find  in  the  docu¬ 
ments  of  the  Council  of  Nice  held  in  325.  Among  the 
bishops  whose  signatures  are  attached  to  the  decrees  of  this 
Council,  is  one  who  signed  himself:  John  the  Persian, 
Bishop  of  Persia  and  Great  India.  At  a  somewhat  later 
date  (328.)  a  certain  Frumentius  is  mentioned  as  the  first 
primate  who  took  up  his  residence  in  India.  Be  this  as  it 
may,  it  is,  however,  historically  certain  that  the  Malabar 
Christians  fell  into  the  Nestorian  heresy  as  early  as  496, 
when  a  Nestorian  prelate  succeeded  to  the  Catholic  See  of 
Seleucia  in  Mesopotamia,  under  whose  jurisdiction  these 
Christians  were  placed.  The  intercourse  of  the  Thomas 
Christians  was  limited  by  the  conquests  of  the  Moslems  in 
the  seventh  century  to  Mesopotamia,  whence  the  Nestorian 
Patriarch  would,  from  time  to  time,  supply  them  with 
prelates.  Living  under  Nestorian  jurisdiction  it  was 
almost  unavoidable  for  the  St.  Thomas  or  Malabar  Chris¬ 
tians  not  to  become  Nestorians  and  they  remained  in  their 
heresy  until  the  arrival  of  the  Franciscan  missionaries 
about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Some  time 
after  their  conversion  they  received  their  own  bishop 
in  the  person  of  Father  Roz,  S.  J.,  who  was  consecrated  in 
1601  by  the  Archbishop  of  Goa  under  the  title  of  Bishop 
of  Angamale.  Four  years  later  he  was  made  Archbishop 
of  Cranganore.  The  new  prelate  worked  zealously  for  his 


84 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


flock  and  after  twenty-three  years  of  a  busy  bishop’s  life 
he  died  at  Parur,  February  18,  1624. 

The  data  of  the  Thomas  Christians,  meager  as  they 
are,  are  more  plentiful  than  the  material  on  Catholicism 
in  other  parts  of  India.  In  books  of  travel  we  find  short 
references  to  Christians  having  churches,  priests  and  a 
liturgy  in  some  parts  of  India  during  the  fourth,  fifth  and 
sixth  centuries.  Mention  is  made  of  Male  (Malabar), 
Ceylon,  Serindh  in  the  Punjab,  and  other  districts  of 
Northwest  India.  The  British  Museum  treasures  a 
Report  of  the  Serra  dating  from  the  ninth  century  which 
also  contains  some  remarks  on  the  Malabar  Christians. 

Franciscans  and  Dominicans . — Very  little,  if  anything, 
is  known  of  the  Church’s  history  in  India  from  the  ninth 
to  the  thirteenth  century,  for  the  next  allusion  to  the 
missions  of  India  comes  to  us  in  a  letter  written  by  Pope 
Innocent  IV.  in  1253.  In  the  thirteenth  century  the 
Franciscans  and  Dominicans  started  working  in  the  mis¬ 
sion  field  of  East  India,  and  a  new  era  opened  for  this 
field.  There  is  another  letter  written  by  Pope  Alexander 
IV.  in  1258,  which  tells  of  Franciscans  laboring  in  East 
India.  The  Franciscans  and  Dominicans  had  missions 
in  Abyssinia,  Nubia  and  Persia,  and  they  united  to  these 
some  stations  in  Northern  India.  In  1288  we  again  find  a 
Pope,  Nicholas  IV.,  speaking  of  Franciscans  in  India. 
These  repeated  testimonies  of  the  popes  go  to  prove  that 
the  sons  of  St.  Dominic  and  the  sons  of  St.  Francis  had 
continued  working  in  India  from  around  1250  for  up¬ 
wards  of  a  half  century.  These  reports  of  the  popes  are 
practically  all  the  particulars  we  have  of  Indian  Church 
history  for  this  period. 

At  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century,  in  1292  or  1293, 
John  of  Corvino,  a  Franciscan,  inaugurated  the  activity 
of  European  missionaries  in  Southern  India.  Tauris  in 
Persia  became  the  headquarters  from  which  he  and  other 
missionaries  made  excursions  into  Southern  India  and 
China.  There  is  a  letter  of  Father  John  Corvino  written 


PIONEER  MISSIONARIES:  52 P-1498 


85 


from  Peking  in  1305  which  tells  of  his  stay  in  Mylapore. 
Father  John  left  Mylapore  for  Peking  about  the  year 
1300.  A  few  years  later  Friar  Jordan  Catalani,  a 
Dominican,  and  four  Franciscans  arrived  in  India  and 
made  the  Coromandel  Coast  their  field  of  activity,  with 
the  city  of  Colombo  as  their  mission  center.  This  city  of 
Colombo  must  not  be  confused  with  Colombo  in  Ceylon, 
nor  with  the  city  of  Quilon  on  the  Malabar  Coast.  The 
Colombo  to  which  Friar  Jordan  and  his  Franciscan  asso¬ 
ciates  came  is  no  longer  in  existence,  but  in  those  days  it 
was  situated  on  the  east  side  of  Cape  Comorin  on  the 
Coromandel  Coast  opposite  Ceylon.  The  Friars  evidently 
worked  in  this  field  with  God’s  blessing,  for  as  early  as 
1310  this  mission  was  in  a  flourishing  condition.  But 
trouble  soon  came  to  interrupt  the  work  of  the  mission¬ 
aries.  On  April  13  and  14,  1321,  the  four  Franciscans 
were  put  to  death  by  some  infuriated  Mohammedans. 
The  Friars  condemned  the  tenets  and  practices  of  Moham¬ 
medanism,  and  as  a  result  were  martyred  at  Tana  on  the 
Island  of  Salsette  near  Bombay.  Friar  Jordan  escaped 
death  on  this  occasion,  and  continued  his  labors  alone  on 
the  island  and  in  the  neighboring  districts  of  Sefer  and 
Barokia  on  the  Bay  of  Cambay.  In  the  meantime  other 
Dominicans  had  opened  a  mission  field  on  the  Island  of 
Diu  in  the  extreme  northwestern  part  of  India. 

In  1324  or  1325  Friar  Jordan  left  Salsette,  and  re¬ 
turned  to  Europe  in  the  interest  of  his  mission  field. 
Alone  he  had  struggled  along  bravely  for  more  than  two 
and  a  half  years  on  the  island,  and  now  he  needed  help. 
With  his  departure  the  mission  of  Salsette  came  to  an 
end.  But  Friar  Jordan  was  anxious  to  get  back  to  his 
mission.  While  in  Europe  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Colombo  on  the  Coromandel  Coast  (1328),  and  reached 
his  See  in  1330.  Little  is  known  of  this  Dominican’s 
further  activities,  but  a  well-founded  tradition  says  that 
Jordan  ended  his  days  by  a  martyr’s  death. 

When  the  Franciscan  John  of  Marignola  came  to 


86 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


Colombo  in  1348,  be  could  find  no  trace  of  the  Dominican 
bishop  or  of  any  of  his  priests.  John  of  Marignola  re¬ 
mained  at  Colombo  from  April  1348  till  June  1349  and 
then  returned  to  Europe.  Another  Franciscan  who  visited 
India  during  the  fourteenth  century  was  Blessed  Odoric 
of  Pordenone.  This  Friar  was  sent  to  China  in  1316  and 
made  the  voyage  by  sea  from  Persia  to  Tana  on  Salsette 
Island.  From  Salsette  he  visited  Mylapore  and  Colombo, 
and  thence  continued  his  journey  to  China.  On  his  return 
trip  to  Europe  he  journeyed  overland  through  Tibet,  and 
gained  the  distinction  of  being  the  first  European  to  visit 
Lhasa,  the  capital  of  that  country. 

There  were  other  missionaries  who  passed  through 
India  while  on  their  way  to  their  allotted  mission  fields  in 
China  or  elsewhere,  and  from  these  there  are  passing 
references  to  Catholicism  in  India.  But  these  short  stops 
had  no  real  influence  on  the  Indian  Church. 

The  missions  of  Northern  India  became  practically 
extinct  during  the  second  half  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
owing  to  the  wars  waged  by  Timur.  This  leader  con¬ 
quered  Northern  India  in  1398,  and  put  an  end  to  the 
activities  of  the  missionaries.  Pope  Eugene  IV.  reopened 
this  vast  field  in  1439  and  appointed  the  Franciscan, 
Albert  of  Sarteano,  and  some  of  his  confreres  to  take 
charge  of  Egypt,  Abyssinia  and  Northern  India.  But 
neither  Albert  nor  any  of  the  other  missionaries  ever 
reached  India.  There  is  no  other  account  of  European 
missionaries  going  to  India  during  the  entire  fifteenth 
century. 


CHAPTER  II 


MODEKN  MISSIONS :  1498-1700 

European  Missionaries. — Beginning  with  the  sixteenth 
century  missionaries  of  different  Religious  Orders  flocked 
to  India  with  the  political  conquerors  and  began  their 
spiritual  conquest  of  India.  The  Sons  of  SS.  Francis  and 
Dominic  were  the  pioneer  laborers  in  the  field.  The 
Jesuits  and  Augustinians,  and  later  also  the  Carmelites, 
Capuchins  and  other  religious  and  secular  priests  had 
representatives  in  this  mission  field.  To  Portugal  belongs 
the  glory  of  having  brought  the  first  missionaries  of  mod¬ 
ern  times  to  India.  When,  in  the  year  1497,  Vasco  da 
Gama  set  out  for  India,  two  Trinitarian  Fathers  accom¬ 
panied  him  as  missionaries.  One  of  them,  however,  died 
in  the  course  of  the  trip  at  Mozanbic;  the  other,  Fr.  Pedro 
de  Covilham,  landed  in  India,  where,  after  a  year  of 
zealous  and  successful  labors,  he  was  martyred. 

Franciscans  in  India. — A  band  of  Franciscans,  eight 
in  all,  with  Fr.  Henry  Alvarez  of  Coimbra  as  Superior, 
left  Lisbon,  March  8,  1500,  with  the  fleet  of  Peter  Alvares 
Cabral.  Three  of  these  missionaries  were  killed  at  Cali¬ 
cut  in  the  massacre  of  November  16,  and  the  remainder 
arrived  at  Cochin  on  or  about  the  twenty-sixth  of  that 
month.  Cochin,  therefore,  has  the  honor  of  being  the 
cradle  of  the  so-called  rebirth  of  Catholicism  in  India. 
Angediva  Island,  near  Karwar,  supplied  the  first  neo¬ 
phytes,  twenty-three  in  number.  The  harvest  of  souls  was 
rich  and  larger  contingents  of  missionaries  arrived  from 
time  to  time.  In  1503  a  number  of  Dominican  Fathers, 
under  the  guidance  of  Fr.  Dominic  de  Susa,  arrived  at 

87 


88 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


Cochin,  where  they  were  put  in  charge  of  St.  Bartholo¬ 
mew’s  Church. 

By  the  year  1531  the  work  of  these  missionaries  had 
progressed  so  far  that  they  received  their  first  bishop  in 
the  person  of  the  Franciscan  Ferdinand  Voquier,  and  their 
first  Archbishop,  John  Albuquerque,  a  Franciscan,  in 
1537. 1 

Missions  in  Northern  India. — As  the  Portuguese  ad¬ 
vanced  in  their  conquests,  the  missionaries  followed  with 
the  peaceful  tidings  of  the  Gospel.  When  in  1534  the 
Portuguese  had  conquered  the  Prince  of  Diu  and  the 
northwest  coast  of  India,  Fr.  Antonio  da  Porto,  a  Fran¬ 
ciscan,  founded  churches,  schools  and  orphanages  on  the 
Island  of  Salsette,  near  Bombay,  and  at  other  places  along 
the  coast.  Five  boys  from  his  orphanage  at  Agasshi 
proved  themselves  so  stanch  in  the  Faith  as  to  suffer 
martyrdom. 

Colleges  in  India. — Even  at  this  time  the  problem  of 
a  native  clergy  confronted  the  missionaries.  The  scarcity 
of  priests  conversant  with  the  native  language  was  one  of 
the  greatest  hindrances  to  the  spread  of  the  Faith.  In 
1535,  Fr.  Diego  da  Borba  and  Fr.  Miguel  Vaz  established 
a  college  at  Goa  for  training  native  aspirants  to  the  priest¬ 
hood.  This  college  afterwards  became  the  famous  Jesuit 
College  of  St.  Paul.  Another  college  was  founded  at 
Cranganore  by  the  Franciscan,  Fr.  Vincent  da  Lagos,  to 
instruct  Nestorian  Christians  in  the  Catholic  Faith.2 3 

Government  of  the  Church. — Portugal,  being  a  Catholic 
country,  arranged  with  the  Holy  See  for  the  direction  of 
the  Church  in  her  newly  acquired  possessions.  The 
Church  in  India,  as  in  all  Portuguese  Possessions,  was 
under  the  care  of  the  Military  Order  of  Christ.  At  the 
head  of  this  Order  was  a  bishop,  who  came  to  India  to 

1 P.  Dr.  Holzapfel,  Historia  Ordinis,  Fratrum  Minorum,  Freiburg, 

1909,  p.  233;  Dr.  Heinrich  Hahn,  Geschiohte  der  katholischen 
Missionen,  Koeln,  1858,  Vol.  II,  pp.  304  ff. 

3  Ibidem }  p.  309. 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1498-1700 


89 


function  in  his  episcopal  capacity.  During  the  years 
1515-1535,  five  bishops  visited  India,  among  whom  were 
the  Dominican  Bishop  Nunes  and  the  Franciscan  Bishops 
Torquemada  and  Vancquera.  In  1535  the  Diocese  of  Goa 
was  erected  as  a  suffragan  to  the  Provincial  See  of  Fun¬ 
chal,  a  Portuguese  possession  off  the  west  coast  of  Africa. 
The  first  bishop  appointed  to  the  See  of  Goa  died  before 
leaving  Portugal.  The  first  bishop  to  take  up  his  resi¬ 
dence  at  Goa,  and  to  govern  the  diocese  effectively  was  the 
Franciscan  Bishop  John  Alphonse  de  Albuquerque 
(1537-1553).  This  prelate’s  jurisdiction  extended  over 
all  the  Portuguese  Settlements  in  Africa  and  the  East 
Indies.  He  deeply  deplored  the  indifference  of  the  people, 
but  owing  to  the  shortage  of  the  missionaries  and  the 
abuses  committed  by  some  of  his  few  available  priests  he 
was  unable  to  cope  with  the  immorality  of  the  European 
colonists,  much  less  attempt  the  conversion  of  the  Moslem 
and  Hindu  population.3 

Although  the  Franciscan  Friars  did  all  in  their  power 
to  help  the  bishop,  they  were  too  few  in  numbers  to 
enlarge  the  scope  of  their  activity.  By  restricting  their 
efforts  to  their  own  mission  field,  extending  from  Diu  in 
the  north  to  Colombo  in  the  south  and  Mylapore  in  the 
east,  their  work  was  blessed  with  much  fruit.  They  built 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty  large  churches  besides  count¬ 
less  mission  posts  and  converted  natives  by  the  thousands. 
They  had  seen  more  than  one  of  their  brethren  die  a 
martyr’s  death  and  they  left  behind  them  a  development 
which  might  well  rival  the  Jesuit  work  in  the  following 
century.  In  all  justice,  then,  the  zealous  Sons  of  St.  Fran¬ 
cis  and  St.  Dominic  deserve  the  title,  “first  heralds  of  the 
Gospel  in  India.”  Special  mention  is  also  due  the  two 
secular  priests,  Fr.  Pedro  Gonsalves  and  Fr.  Miguel  Vaz, 
who  assisted  the  Franciscans  and  Dominicans  in  their 
labor. 

3  Catholic  Directory  of  India,  Burma  and  Ceylon,  Madras,  1922, 
p.  22  ff.  > 


90 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


Ceylon . — In  the  year  1540  one  of  the  kings  of  the 
Island  of  Ceylon  sent  a  delegation  to  Portugal  seeking 
Christian  missionaries.  In  answer  to  this  appeal  Fr. 
John  of  Villa-Comte,  together  with  Simon  of  Coimbra 
and  four  other  Franciscan  Friars,  journeyed  to  the  royal 
residence  on  the  Island  of  Ceylon  and  presented  to  the 
king  an  answer  from  King  John  of  Portugal.  The  king 
promised  the  missionaries  to  embrace  Christianity,  but 
hesitated  in  carrying  out  his  determination.  They  ob¬ 
tained  permission  to  preach  publicly  in  his  dominions,  and 
thus  spread  their  missionary  activity  in  various  localities. 
At  Colombo  they  founded  a  college,  where  very  soon  sev¬ 
enty  children  of  the  converts  received  Christian  education. 
Fr.  Anthony  of  Padrona,  one  of  the  missionaries  who  had 
come  to  Ceylon,  settled  at  Mylapore  on  the  Coromandel 
Coast  with  one  companion.  He  built  a  little  chapel  in  the 
heathen  village  and  soon  after  erected  a  monastery.  His 
preaching  brought  about  1300  heathens  into  the  Church 
up  to  the  time  of  his  death  in  1545.  In  a  short  time  the 
Franciscan  missionaries  had  erected  twelve  churches  in 
the  island.  They  are  credited  with  having  converted  the 
King  of  Kandy  in  the  interior  part  of  the  island  and  the 
King  of  Battikaloa  in  the  eastern  part,  whose  example  led 
many  other  heathens  into  the  Church. 

The  indefatigable  efforts  of  these  missionaries  were 
inadequate  to  care  for  all  the  Christians  scattered  over 
India,  and  so  it  was  with  genuine  joy  and  welcome  that 
they  hailed  the  advent  of  the  Jesuits  under  the  leadership 
of  the  most  famous  missionary  since  the  time  of  St.  Paul. 

The  Apostle  of  India.  St.  Francis  Xavier. — St. 
Francis  Xavier  was  born  April  7,  1506,  in  the  castle  of 
Xavier  in  Navarre,  Spain.  At  nineteen  years  of  age  he 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  was  matriculated  in  the  College 
de  Sainte-Barbe.  Here  he  met  St.  Ignatius  Loyola,  and 
aided  him  in  founding  the  Society  of  Jesus.  Later  on  he 
went  to  Venice  with  St.  Ignatius,  where  he  received  holy 
orders.  From  here  the  two  proceeded  to  Borne  to  procure 


St.  Ignatius  Sending  St.  Francis  Xavier  to  India. 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1498-1700 


91 


the  approval  of  the  Holy  See  for  their  new  Society.  Be¬ 
fore  the  Society  had  the  written  approval  of  the  Pope, 
Xavier,  at  the  earnest  solicitation  of  John  III.,  King  of 
Portugal,  was  sent  as  missionary  to  the  East  Indies. 
Equipped  with  the  power  of  a  papal  legate,  Erancis  em¬ 
barked  with  two  companions  on  April  7,  1541,  and  after 
a  long  and  tedious  voyage  landed  at  Goa,  May  6,  1542. 

Missionary  in  Goa. — Xavier’s  first  care  was  to  convert 
the  Portuguese,  who  by  their  loose  life  hindered  the 
spread  of  the  Catholic  Eaith.  Aware  that  no  lasting 
improvement  was  possible  unless  the  children  were  won, 
Erancis  walked  through  the  streets  ringing  a  bell  and 
calling  aloud  to  the  faithful  Christians  to  send  their 
children  to  Christian  doctrine.  When  he  had  gathered  a 
number  of  children,  he  took  them  into  the  church  and 
taught  them  their  prayers  and  the  Ten  Commandments. 
To  the  intense  joy  of  his  bishop,  Francis  had  in  six  months 
effected  a  notable  reformation  in  Goa.  The  bishop  so 
loved  and  admired  Francis  that  he  consulted  him  on  all 
matters  of  importance  and  later  handed  over  to  his  charge 
the  College  of  St.  Paul. 

Laboring  in  Other  Missions. — After  his  success  in  Goa 
Francis  left  for  the  Pearl  Fishery  Coast  at  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  Peninsula.  The  inhabitants,  called 
Parava ,  i.e.,  fishers,  had  accepted  Christianity  some 
twenty  years  before,  but  because  of  the  scarcity  of  the 
priests,  they  had  received  only  the  rudiments  of  Faith 
and  so  in  the  course  of  time  relapsed  into  their  old  cus¬ 
toms.  For  three  years  Francis  worked  among  them  with 
great  success.  In  fact,  wherever  St.  Francis  labored,  his 
efforts  were  always  crowned  with  splendid  results.  How¬ 
ever,  the  stupendous  number  of  conversions  generally 
ascribed  to  him  is  fabulous  (likewise  the  enormous  figures 
attributed  to  other  early  missionaries).  In  1760  the  total 
number  of  Catholics  in  India  did  not  exceed  one  million.4 

4  Die  Jcatholisohen  Missionen,  Freiburg,  Vol.  L,  1921-1922,  pp. 
191-192. 


92 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


But  St.  Francis  Xavier  did  not  confine  his  missionary 
labors  to  India.  In  the  ten  years  of  his  apostolate  he 
advanced  as  far  as  Japan.  On  April  14,  1552,  he  left 
Goa  for  China  never  to  return,  for  he  died  December  2  of 
that  year  on  Sancian  Island  off  the  coast  of  China. 

At  the  time  of  the  death  of  St.  Francis  the  Jesuit 
mission  field  was  almost  as  large  as  that  of  the  Francis¬ 
cans.  It  comprised  the  districts  in  and  about  Cochin, 
Quilon,  Bassein,  Diu  and  Mylapore,  and  many  colleges, 
catechumen ates,  hospitals  and  other  institutions  attested 
the  zeal  and  success  of  the  Jesuits. 

Jesuit  Mission  to  Akbar  s  Court. — The  triumph  of  the 
Gospel  was  not  limited  to  the  coast  districts  of  India.  The 
fame  of  the  missionaries  spread  to  Northern  India 
through  the  instrumentality  of  a  certain  Anton  Cabral, 
who  was  sent  as  ambassador  from  Portugal  to  the  Court  of 
Akbar  the  Great  in  1578.  This  king,  who  was  the  greatest 
of  the  Mogul  Emperors  and  at  that  time  the  greatest 
monarch  in  the  world,  was  much  interested  in  religions 
and  invited  the  Jesuits  to  his  Court.  In  1580  the  Jesuit 
missionaries  Budolph  Aquaviva,  Anthony  Monserratte 
and  P.  Henriquez  arrived  at  the  Court  of  Akbar.  They 
were  received  with  great  pomp  and  the  king  himself  enter¬ 
tained  them.  The  missionaries  presented  him  with  an 
elegantly  bound  edition  of  the  famous  Plantin  Polyglot 
Bible  containing  a  Persian  translation.  Before  allowing 
the  missionaries  to  preach  in  his  Kingdom,  Akbar  himself 
wanted  to  learn  more  about  the  Christian  religion  and  so 
arranged  for  public  disputations  with  the  Mohammedan 
Divines.  Three  of  these  disputations  are  reported:  the 
first  was  regarding  the  divine  character  of  the  Bible  as 
against  that  of  the  Koran ;  the  second  regarding  the  Para¬ 
dise  promised  and  described  by  Mohammed;  the  third 
and  last  public  discussion  was  the  contrast  between  Christ 
and  Mohammed.  The  king  was  pleased  with  the  outcome 
of  these  discussions.  Deeply  impressed  by  the  Christian 
Peligion,  the  skeptic  Mongol  nevertheless  refused  to  be- 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1498-1700 


93 


lieve  unless  lie  understood.  After  laboring  for  three  years 
at  the  Court  of  Akbar  with  little  success  the  missionaries 
left  for  the  mission  field  about  Bombay.5 

Some  years  later  Akbar  again  requested  missionaries  to 
work  in  his  Kingdom.  Jerome  Xavier  was  made  Superior 
of  the  little  band  that  set  out  for  the  Royal  Court.  When 
the  party  arrived  at  the  king’s  residence  in  Lahore  (1594) 
they  were  well  received,  and  Jerome  found  special  favor 
with  the  monarch  and  was  admitted  to  the  circle  of  his 
intimate  friends.  At  the  king’s  request  Jerome  wrote  a 
Life  of  Christ  in  Persian.  The  king  readily  granted  the 
Fathers  permission  to  preach  the  Gospel  openly  in  the 
Kingdom  of  Gujarat,  even  granting  a  royal  letter  to  that 
effect.  Jerome  accompanied  the  king  on  his  tours  and 
thus  had  many  opportunities  to  preach  the  Gospel  in  the 
different  parts  of  his  Kingdom,  especially  in  Kashmir, 
Lahore  and  Agra.  Agra  was  the  center  of  a  Catholic 
mission  since  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The 
first  Catholic  church  in  Lahore  was  blessed  September  7, 
1597.  Fr.  Jerome  labored  in  the  Mogul  Empire  for 
twenty  years  with  much  success;  although  he  did  not 
succeed  in  converting  the  king,  yet  he  had  the  consola¬ 
tion  of  baptizing  three  royal  princes  after  the  king’s 
death.6 

In  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Jesuits 
established  themselves  in  the  Portuguese  settlements  north 
of  Goa  side  by  side  with  the  Franciscans.  They  erected 
schools  in  Bassein  and  Daman,  and  on  the  Islands  of 
Salsette  and  Diu.  South  of  Goa  the  Jesuits  had  many 
establishments,  some  of  which  had  been  erected  by  St. 
Francis  Xavier. 

In  the  last  ten  years  of  the  sixteenth  century  the 
Jesuits  gained  a  foothold  in  Calicut,  the  residence  of  the 
Samorin,  who  had  always  been  hostile  to  the  Portuguese 

aRev.  Fr.  Felix  Finck,  O.  M.  Cap  .Journal  of  the  Punjab  His¬ 
torical  Society ,  Calcutta,  1916,  Vt>l.  V,  pp.  1—11. 

•  Ibidem ,  p.  2. 


94 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


and  Christian  missionaries.  It  does  not  seem  that  many 
conversions  were  made  in  this  place,  nevertheless  this 
settlement  served  the  purpose  of  bridging  over  the  enmity 
that  existed  between  the  Samorin  and  the  Portuguese,  and 
it  paved  the  way  for  bringing  the  Thomas  Christians 
back  to  Catholic  Unity. 

St.  Francis  Xavier  had  preached  the  Gospel  with  great 
success  in  the  Kingdom  of  Travancore.  In  the  meantime 
the  King  of  Travancore  changed  his  mind.  He  forbade 
the  Jesuits  to  enter  his  Kingdom,  and  persecuted  the 
converts,  and  in  consequence  many  fell  away  from  the 
Faith.  In  1552  St.  Francis  had  founded  a  residence  in 
Coulan,  to  which  was  also  attached  a  seminary.  The  king, 
intimidated  by  the  Portuguese,  again  gave  the  Jesuits 
permission  to  preach  in  his  Kingdom  without  hindrance. 
Thereupon  the  Christian  Keligion  took  on  a  new  spirit  on 
the  coast  of  Travancore,  and  the  number  of  yearly  con¬ 
versions  varied  between  400  and  1,000.  The  missions 
established  by  St.  Francis  Xavier  among  the  Parava  on 
the  Fishery  Coast  had  many  disadvantages  connected  with 
them.  The  Badhoughers  were  very  hostile,  and  the  Mala¬ 
bar  pirates  often  attacked  the  mission  and  put  to  death  or 
carried  into  captivity  many  of  the  Fathers.  Then,  too,  the 
heat  was  intense  and  the  climate  unhealthy.  But  the  mis¬ 
sionaries  pushed  on  undaunted  and  devoted  themselves  to 
the  poor  Parava,  for  whom  they  built  churches  and  schools, 
erected  seminaries  and  founded  hospitals.  The  mission 
progressed  steadily  and  the  end  of  the  century  found 
it  in  a  flourishing  condition  .  .  .  under  the  direction  of 
seventeen  Jesuit  Fathers.  In  1560  many  of  the  Parava 
settled  on  the  Island  of  Manaar.  Here,  too,  the  Jesuits  es¬ 
tablished  a  mission  post  which  played  an  important  role  in 
the  spread  of  the  Gospel  to  Ceylon.  The  Jesuits  were  also 
active  along  the  Coromandel  Coast,  and  founded  settle¬ 
ments  in  the  Kingdoms  of  Megapat  am,  Gingi,  Tan  j  ore 
and  Madura.  In  the  year  1576  they  opened  a  school  for 
boys  at  Mylapore,  which  by  the  year  1598  had  developed 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1498-1700 


95 


into  a  seminary.  From  Mylapore  the  Jesuits  spread  to 
the  Kingdom  of  Bisnagar  and  towards  the  end  of  the 
century  established  missions  in  Bengal  and  Pegu.  Soon, 
however,  the  hostile  rulers  of  the  land  destroyed  the 
missions  and  either  put  to  death  or  carried  the  Fathers  off 
into  captivity.  From  Agra  as  a  center  the  Gospel  spread 
north  to  the  Punjab,  west  to  Pajputana,  east  to  Benares, 
and  south  to  Gwalior.  For  a  time  it  seemed  as  if  Central 
India  were  to  be  brought  under  the  sway  of  the  Catholic 
Faith,  hut  political  events  retarded,  for  a  time  at  least, 
the  further  conquests  of  the  Gospel.  England  and  Holland 
were  not  in  sympathy  with  the  Catholic  Religion  and  made 
it  extremely  difficult  for  the  missionaries  from  Europe, 
upon  whom  the  spread  of  the  Gospel  in  India  solely  de¬ 
pended,  to  get  passage  on  their  ships.7 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  Jesuits  pursued  their 
missionary  activities  in  India  with  great  zeal.  The  num¬ 
ber  of  conversions  had  grown  to  tens  of  thousands,  yet 
this  was  a  small  number  compared  with  the  many  millions 
of  inhabitants.  Then  again,  the  conversions  were  almost 
entirely  from  the  lower  castes.  The  chief  obstacle  to  the 
spread  of  the  Faith  in  India  was,  without  doubt,  the  caste 
system.  The  higher  and  influential  castes  would  have 
nothing  to  do  with  Christianity,  because  the  Christian 
missionaries  were  in  constant  contact  with  the  lower 
classes  and  preached  the  Gospel  to  the  poor.  But  is  was 
also  necessary  that  the  higher  castes,  the  Brahmans  in 
particular,  be  converted  to  Christianity.  It  is  true  St. 
Francis  Xavier  and  his  successors  made  a  conversion 
among  the  Brahmans  here  and  there;  nevertheless,  the 
outlook  for  the  conversion  of  the  higher  castes  in  general 
was  very  poor.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  it  was  deemed 
necessary  that  certain  missionaries  devote  themselves 
entirely  to  the  higher  castes,  avoiding  all  intercourse  with 
the  lower  castes.  Such  an  accommodation  to  heathen  cus¬ 
toms,  however,  was  so  contrary  to  Christian  European 

7  Hahn,  op.  c.,  p.  325  ff. 


96 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


customs  that  the  question  arose  whether  this  could  be 
made  to  harmonize  with  Christian  principles. 

Father  Robert  de  Nobili,  S.  J. — Fr.  Robert  de  Nobili 
was  the  first  missionary  to  take  up  this  idea  and  to  devote 
himself  entirely  to  the  conversion  of  the  Brahmans.  Little 
is  known  of  de  Nobili’s  early  years,  save  that  he  was  born 
at  Rome,  1577,  of  a  noble  family.  At  the  age  of  nineteen 
he  forsook  the  world  and  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus. 
From  his  entrance  into  this  Society  the  missions  of  India 
interested  him,  and  he  begged  his  superiors  to  send  him  to 
these  missions.  Having  obtained  their  consent,  he  em¬ 
barked  about  1604  at  Lisbon.  His  first  labors  were  de¬ 
voted  to  caring  for  the  natives  who  lived  along  the  southern 
coast  of  India.  In  1606  his  attention  was  directed  to  the 
inhabitants  of  Madura,  composed,  for  the  most  part,  of 
Brahmans,  who  had  defeated  all  attempts  to  convert  them 
to  Christianity.  De  Nobili  threw  his  whole  energy  into 
this  work.  Since  the  year  1595  Fr.  Gonsalvo  Fernandez, 
S.  J.,  had  been  laboring  in  this  place,  but  his  efforts 
seemed  almost  fruitless.  He  could  win  only  those  of  the 
lower  castes  living  along  the  coasts;  but  Christianity  did 
not  attract  the  heathens  of  Madura.  De  Nobili  made  an 
earnest  study  of  the  Indian  character  and  soon  realized 
the  cause  and  set  about  to  apply  the  remedy.8 

De  Nobili s  Observations. — The  Hindus  had  a  great 
aversion  to  foreigners  and  this  hindered  them  even  from 
listening  to  the  message  of  the  Gospel.  Especially  were 
they  averse  to  the  Prangui,  the  name  given  to  the  Portu¬ 
guese,  designating  a  low  and  infamous  class  of  men,  with 
whom  no  Hindu  could  have  any  intercourse.  The  reason 
of  this  aversion  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Portuguese 
violated  the  most  sacred  and  venerated  customs  of  India, 
namely,  eating  meat  and  indulging  in  wine  and  spirits; 
and  above  all  because  they  dealt  with  the  lower  castes  and 
the  pariahs.  Naturally,  since  Fernandez  was  a  Portu¬ 
guese,  and  was  seen  associating  freely  with  the  lower 

9  Ibidem,  p.  332  fT. ;  Marshall,  Christian  Missions,  Vol.  I,  ch.  3. 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1498-1700 


97 


classes,  lie  and  the  religion  he  preached  became  objects  of 
contempt.  Fr.  de  Nobili  noted  all  this  and  realized  that 
if  Christianity  was  to  be  successful  among  these  people  it 
must  he  presented  in  a  different  manner. 

His  Sacrifice . — De  Nobili  resolved  to  become  a  Hindu 
in  order  to  save  the  Hindus.  His  superiors,  the  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Cranganore,  and  the  Provincial  of  Malabar 
sanctioned  and  encouraged  his  resolution.  De  Nobili 
entered  Madura  dressed  as  a  Hindu  ascetic.  He  declared 
to  the  Hindus  that  he  was  not  a  Prangui  but  a  rajah,  which 
designated  a  noble  of  the  very  highest  rank.  Later  he 
called  himself  a  Brahman,  since  this  suited  his  purposes 
better.  The  rajahs  formed  the  second  of  the  three  highest 
castes,  namely,  the  military  caste,  whereas  the  intellectual 
caste  was  composed  exclusively  of  Brahmans  who  held  full 
sway  over  the  spiritual  affairs  of  the  people.  De  Nobili 
further  announced  himself  as  a  Saniassy >  that  is,  a  peni¬ 
tent  who  had  renounced  the  world.  With  the  help  of  a 
renowned  Brahman  teacher  de  Nobili  soon  mastered  the 
sacred  language  of  the  Hindus,  namely  Sanskrit.  This 
language  was  used  exclusively  by  the  Brahmans  as  a  sort 
of  an  ecclesiastical  language,  similar  to  Latin  nowadays, 
and  the  lower  classes  did  not  understand  it.  Obtaining  a 
poor  and  small  cabin,  de  Nobili  shut  himself  off  from  the 
world,  admitting  to  his  society  none  hut  Brahmans.  His 
food  consisted  of  rice,  hitter  herbs  and  water,  and  this  he 
took  hut  once  a  day.  With  the  greatest  reserve  did  he 
admit  visitors,  and  then  only  after  they  had  several  times 
been  refused.  When  once  admitted,  the  interview  was 
conducted  according  to  the  strictest  Hindu  etiquette. 

Results. — Such  conduct  soon  aroused  curiosity  and 
wonderful  things  were  whispered  about  the  great  Saniassy. 
The  proudest  and  most  renowned  doctors  sought  an  inter¬ 
view  with  him.  There  took  place  long  arguments  on  the 
unity  of  God,  free  will,  transmigration  of  souls  and  like 
subjects.  Philosophy  had  been  a  favorite  study  for  eight¬ 
een  centuries  among  the  Brahmans,  and  they  counted  then 


98 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


among  their  numbers  many  deep  thinkers.  But  de  Nobili 
was  a  match  for  the  best  of  them.  De  Nobili7s  first  convert 
was  an  esteemed  Brahman  of  high  rank  and  rare  attain¬ 
ments,  who  was  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  philosophy 
of  the  Hindus.  He  demanded  that  the  Saniassy  prove  his 
doctrines  by  refuting  all  the  attacks  he  would  make  upon 
them.  De  Nobili  accepted  the  challenge,  and  after  a  con¬ 
troversy  of  twenty  days,  the  Brahman  acknowledged  him¬ 
self  conquered  and  consented  to  be  baptized.  He  then 
became  a  disciple  and  brought  many  others  to  the  Faith. 
De  Nobili  strictly  enjoined  on  his  converts  to  discard 
everything  which  savored  of  idolatry  and  superstition. 
He  allowed  them,  however,  to  retain  certain  customs 
which,  as  he  believed,  had  only  a  political  or  national 
reference. 

Trial  and  Triumph. — De  Nobili7 s  labors  were  not 
always  free  of  difficulties,  for  he  had  much  to  suffer  from 
the  fanaticism  of  the  pagan  priests.  He  was  calumniated, 
imprisoned  and  even  threatened  with  death,  yet  did  not 
waver.  Later  on  the  king,  after  visiting  him  in  person, 
became  his  protector,  and  his  enemies  left  him  unmolested. 
About  this  time  the  conversions  had  increased  to  such 
numbers  that  de  Nobili  was  forced  to  apply  to  his  superiors 
for  an  assistant,  and  Fr.  Emmanuel  Leitan  was  sent  to 
help  him. 

Seeing  how  well  his  work  progressed  the  good  Father 
determined  to  leave  Madura  and  penetrate  farther  into 
the  interior;  but  at  this  juncture  he  was  to  sustain  a  cruel 
blow,  a  trial,  which  a  heart  less  strong  than  his  could  not 
have  borne.  Fr.  Fernandez,  de  Nobili7s  colleague  and 
predecessor  in  the  mission,  would  seemingly  be  the  last 
one  from  whom  de  Nobili  might  expect  trouble  or  opposi¬ 
tion;  but,  be  it  that  he  was  jealous  of  de  Nobili’s  success 
in  the  very  fields  where  he  himself  had  failed,  or  be  it  from 
a  mere  misunderstanding  of  the  missionary  and  his  meth¬ 
ods,  Fernandez  sent  to  the  Provincial  at  Malabar  and  the 
General  of  the  Society  at  Rome  a  long  report  of  weighty 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1498-1700 


99 


and  formidable  charges  against  de  Nobili,  accusing  him 
of  imposture,  and  attributing  his  great  success  to  conces¬ 
sions  to  idolatry.  He  likewise  denounced  de  Nobili  as  an 
innovator  because  he  formed  separate  churches  for  the 
castes.  Such  charges,  coming  as  they  did  from  one  of 
Fernandez’  standing,  achieved  their  purpose ;  for  the 
Provincial  at  Malabar  and  the  General  of  the  Society 
severely  reproved  the  missionary  and  warned  him  to 
change  his  methods  immediately.  Even  Cardinal  Bellar- 
mine,  his  uncle,  wrote  to  him  expressing  his  grief  at  his 
conduct,  and  demanded  an  explanation.  He  Nobili  was 
much  grieved,  but  ably  cleared  himself  of  all  the  charges. 
Both  the  Archbishop  of  Goa  and  the  Archbishop  of  Cran- 
ganore  then  solemnly  approved  of  his  conduct.  De  Nobili 
wrote  to  Rome  a  long  treatise  setting  forth  the  history  of 
his  coming  among  the  Brahmans  and  of  the  methods  he 
used  in  winning  them  to  Christianity.  His  apology  was 
successful  at  Rome,  and  through  the  explanation  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Cranganore  and  the  chief  Inquisitors  of 
Goa,  he  was  exonerated  from  the  accusations.  Cardinal 
Bellarmine  and  the  General  of  the  Society  both  wrote  to 
him  expressing  their  satisfaction  and  encouraged  him  to 
continue  in  his  good  work.  The  Holy  See  itself  was  some¬ 
what  slower  in  its  deliberations,  and  so,  in  the  Apostolic 
Letter  Romance  Sedis  Antistes,  dated  January  31,  1623, 
Gregory  XV.  permitted  the  use  of  the  methods  pursued  by 
de  Nobili,  “until  the  Holy  See  would  provide  otherwise.” 

Concessions  to  the  Natives. — De  Nobili  took  pains  to 
instruct  his  converts  above  all  in  charity,  teaching  them 
they  must  love  also  the  pariahs.  He  did  not,  however, 
insist  on  their  associating  with  those  of  the  lower  classes, 
for  he  well  knew  that  such  a  thing  would  mean  disgrace 
and  ruin  for  the  neophytes  among  their  own  class,  although 
he  succeeded  in  persuading  his  Brahmans  to  greet  the 
Christian  pariahs.  De  Nobili  himself  secretly  ministered 
to  pariahs  and  made  many  converts  among  them.  There 
was  another  class  of  ascetics  among  the  Hindus  who 


100 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


ranked  somewhat  lower  than  the  Brahman  Saniassy. 
They  were  called  Pandaram ,  and  treated  freely  with  all 
castes  without  endangering  their  omul  standing.  De 
Nobili,  accordingly,  with  the  approval  of  the  Archbishop 
of  Cranganore,  divided  his  missionaries  into  two  classes, 
those  who,  like  himself,  were  to  minister  to  the  higher 
castes,  and  those  who  were  to  deal  solely  with  the  pariahs, 
and  these  latter  were  called  Pandaram.  Fr.  Balthasar  da 
Costa,  in  1540,  became  the  first  Pandaram. 

Faithful  unto  Death. — Fr.  de  Nobili  now  had  three 
associates,  and  as  the  mission  was  in  a  flourishing  condi¬ 
tion,  he  decided  to  leave  it  and  penetrate  farther  into 
Madura.  In  a  short  time  he  succeeded  in  spreading  the 
Gospel  throughout  the  whole  of  South  India.  His  last 
field  of  labor  was  at  Jaffnapatam  in  Ceylon,  whence  he 
retired  in  1646.  His  health  failing  him,  he  took  up  his 
abode  in  Mylapore,  and  there  died  a  holy  death,  January 
16,  1656,  in  the  eightieth  year  of  his  age.9 

Special  mention  is  due  Fr.  John  Britto,  one  of  the 
eminent  men  who  followed  the  methods  of  de  Nobili.  His 
chief  fields  of  labor  were  Marawa,  Tanjore,  Gingee  and 
Mysore,  where  he  is  credited  with  performing  miracles, 
especially  healing  the  sick  and  wounded.  This  fact  lent 
much  influence  to  his  teaching  authority.  Twice  he  en¬ 
dured  the  horrors  of  imprisonment  and  finally,  on  Febru¬ 
ary  4,  1693,  he  was  beheaded.  He  was  beatified  in  1853. 

In  the  north,  the  Kingdom  of  the  Great  Mogul,  the 
Jesuits  had  much  to  endure  on  account  of  the  hostility  of 
the  Mohammedans  since  1632.  Jahangir  (1605—1627), 
son  of  Akbar  the  Great  (1542—1605),  befriended  the 
Catholics  even  more  than  Akbar  himself.  But  his  son 
and  successor,  Shah  Jahan,  acted  otherwise.  He  set  on 
foot  a  persecution  against  the  Catholics  and  the  Jesuit 
missionaries  and  destroyed  the  church  at  Lahore  in  1632. 
The  Fathers,  however,  still  continued  to  labor  in  that 
mission  district.  Jahanara,  daughter  of  Jahangir,  died 

9DahImann,  S.  J.,  Indische  Fahrten ,  Vcl.  II,  p.  345. 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1498-1700 


101 


in  the  Christian  Faith  and  her  brother  Dara,  heir  to  the 
throne,  was  converted  before  he  died.  After  the  year 
1632  Agra  remained  the  only  station  from  which  the 
missionaries  ministered  to  the  few  Christians  in  Lahore, 
Kabul,  Marwar,  Ahmadabad  and  Udaipur,  till  about  1690, 
when  a  second  mission  post  was  founded  at  Delhi. 

Jesuits  among  the  Thomas  Christians. — In  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  Jesuits  continued  their 
activities  among  the  Thomas  Christians  under  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  Fr.  Roz,  Archbishop  of  Cranganore.  After  his 
death,  Stephen  Britto  became  Archbishop.  Soon  after 
this  the  Archdeacon  George  assumed  a  hostile  attitude 
towards  him.  He  sent  to  the  Holy  See  a  list  of  accusa¬ 
tions  against  the  Jesuits,  and  in  1632  brought  them  before 
the  King  of  Portugal.  This  state  of  affairs  became  more 
bitter  after  the  death  of  Britto,  when  in  1641  P.  Garzia 
became  Archbishop  of  Cranganore.  Thomas  de  Campo, 
successor  of  the  Archdeacon  George,  carried  the  matter 
still  farther  by  having  himself  sacrilegiously  consecrated 
bishop  by  twelve  priests,  and  usurping  the  spiritual  direc¬ 
tion  of  the  Thomas  Christians. 

Carmelites  among  the  Thomas  Christians. — Those  who 
had  remained  true  to  the  Faith,  tiring  of  this  strife, 
appealed  to  the  Holy  See  to  replace  the  Jesuits  by  the 
Discalced  Carmelites.  In  the  interests  of  peace  the  Holy 
See  acquiesced,  and  accordingly,  in  the  year  1656,  five 
Carmelites  arrived  at  Malabar.  In  a  short  time  they 
brought  to  Catholic  Unity  forty  parishes  of  the  Thomas 
Christians  south  of  Malabar.  In  1659  the  Carmelite  P. 
Joseph  of  St.  Mary  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Hieropolis 
and  Apostolic  Vicar  of  Malabar.  Soon  after  this  the 
Dutch  conquered  Couloan,  Cranganore  and  Cochin,  and 
banished  all  Catholic  missionaries  who  were  not  natives. 
The  apostolic  vicar,  too,  was  forced  to  leave  Malabar.  He 
left  a  few  of  his  Carmelite  brethren  behind,  and  on  Jan¬ 
uary  31,  1663,  consecrated  as  Bishop  of  Megara  Alexan¬ 
der  de  Campo,  a  virtuous  priest  born  in  India  of  Syrian 


102 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


parents,  and  placed  him  over  the  Thomas  Christians. 
With  the  aid  of  the  Carmelite  missionaries  Alexander 
ruled  the  diocese  peacefully  for  twelve  years.  In  1677 
Raphael  de  Figueredo  Salvo,  born  in  the  land  hut  of 
Portuguese  origin,  was  chosen  as  coadjutor.  Strife 
arose  between  him  and  Bishop  Alexander,  which  gave 
rise  to  many  disturbances  and  was  a  great  obstacle 
to  the  conversion  of  the  schismatical  Thomas  Chris¬ 
tians.10 

Carmelites  in  Goa. — The  Carmelites  came  from  Persia 
to  Goa  in  1610.  Soon  after  they  founded  missions  in 
various  parts  of  Northern  India.  In  1650  they  estab¬ 
lished  a  mission  in  Canara,  where  they  labored  with  great 
success.  In  1668  Bombay  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
English,  who  drove  out  the  Franciscan  and  secular  priests, 
and  in  their  place  called  in  the  Discalced  Carmelites. 
Bombay  then  became  the  central  mission  station.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  with  the  consent  of 
the  Propaganda,  the  Carmelites  established  missions  in 
the  Mogul  Empire.  In  1696  the  Pope  appointed  the 
Carmelite,  Fr.  Peter,  Apostolic  Vicar  of  the  Great  Mogul, 
in  Bejapur  and  Golconda.  This  vicariate,  even  after  the 
death  of  Fr.  Peter,  was  entrusted  for  a  long  time  to  the 
Carmelites. 

Oratorians  ( Native  Priests). — In  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century  a  number  of  native  priests  of  India 
banded  together  under  the  rule  of  St.  Philip  Neri.  These 
Indian  Oratorians  took  over  the  missions  founded  by  the 
Jesuits  in  Bejapur  and  made  many  converts.  In  1637  a 
missionary  of  this  Congregation,  Fr.  Matthew  de  Castro, 
was  appointed  Apostolic  Vicar  in  the  Kingdom  of  the 
Great  Mogul.  After  him  came  another  Oratorian,  Cus- 
todius  de  Pincho,  as  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Mogul  and  Gol¬ 
conda.  At  Goa  the  same  Congregation  of  Oratorians  was 
introduced  in  1682,  which  later  on  took  over  a  mission  in 
Ceylon. 

10  Hahn,  op.  o.,  p.  352  ff. 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1498-1700 


103 


Theatines. — The  Congregation  of  the  Theatines  came 
to  Goa  in  1639.  From  here  Fr.  Manco  and  Fr.  Alvares 
pressed  on  to  the  Kingdom  of  Golconda  and  received  per¬ 
mission  from  the  king  to  preach  the  Gospel.  In  1644  the 
Theatines  were  driven  from  Goa  by  a  decree  of  the  King 
of  Portugal,  because  they  were  missionaries  under  the 
Propaganda  and  were  subjects  of  the  King  of  Spain.  But 
by  reason  of  their  holy  life  they  were  held  in  great  respect 
by  the  inhabitants,  and  through  the  intercession  of  the 
viceroy  were  again  allowed  to  continue  their  activities  in 
Goa.  Furthermore  they  received  permission  to  found  a 
hospice  in  Lisbon.  With  this,  all  opposition  on  the  part  of 
the  Portuguese  Government  ceased.  Often,  however,  in 
the  course  of  the  seventeenth  century  these  missions 
suffered  from  want  of  priests,  and  on  this  account  the 
mission  at  Golconda  was  often  interrupted,  and  some 
of  the  mission  posts  had  to  be  given  over  to  the  Augus- 
tinians. 

Augustinians. — The  Augustinians  gave  many  bishops 
to  the  Indian  missions,  among  whom  may  be  mentioned 
the  great  Meneges,  Archbishop  of  Goa  (1594—1610).  It 
was  due  to  his  influence  that  the  Augustinians  came 
to  the  Portuguese  Possessions  in  Bengal  in  1599.  In 
1622  the  Augustinians  founded  a  college  for  young 
Brahmans  at  Goa.  In  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century  they  had  missionaries  in  Hyderabad  and  in  the 
Kingdom  of  Golconda,  where  they  took  over  some  stations 
from  the  Theatines.  Their  chief  mission  field  was  to  be 
Bengal,  where  Fr.  Leonard  da  Graca  in  1599  founded  a 
mission  station  at  Hugli  near  Calcutta.  In  1632  Hugli 
was  besieged  by  the  Mongol  ruler  of  Bengal,  Cassam- 
Chain,  and  the  Augustinians  as  well  as  the  Portuguese 
were  either  put  to  death  or  taken  captive  to  Agra,  where 
they  suffered  many  hardships.  Some  time  later  they  were 
set  free.  The  Portuguese  rebuilt  Hugli  and  the  Augustin¬ 
ians  returned  to  continue  their  work.  After  the  Portu¬ 
guese  gave  up  Hugli,  the  missions  of  the  Augustinians 


104 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


declined,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century 
were  restricted  to  Calcutta  and  Bandel.11 

Capuchins  at  Pondicherry. — In  1631  six  Capuchins 
were  sent  to  India  by  the  famous  Pere  Joseph  Du  Trem¬ 
blay  and  landed  at  Pondicherry,  January  8,  1632,  Here 
they  found  remnants  of  Christians,  who  had  been  such 
in  name  only.  The  missionaries  in  a  short  time  made 
many  conversions  among  them.  The  Capuchins  had  come 
to  India  with  the  Commercial  Company  of  India,  from 
whom  they  also  received  support.  But  scarcely  two  years 
passed  when  the  Company  was  dissolved  and  the  Friars 
were  forced  to  leave  India. 

Again  in  1671  the  Capuchins  were  called  to  Pondi¬ 
cherry  by  the  French  “Company  of  India/’  who  had  es¬ 
tablished  a  factory  here.  But  two  years  later  the  mission 
was  again  discontinued  on  account  of  the  wars  with  the 
Dutch.  Finally,  January  15,  1674,  the  mission  at  Pondi¬ 
cherry  was  permanently  established,  and  a  little  church 
in  the  fort  was  given  to  the  Capuchins.  Pondicherry  be¬ 
longed  to  the  Diocese  of  Mylapore  and  the  Capuchins 
subjected  themselves  to  the  bishop’s  jurisdiction  without, 
however,  acknowledging  the  Portuguese  patronage.  The 
missionaries  were  very  successful  in  their  labors  among 
the  Hindus  and  Thomas  Christians  or  Malabarites.  The 
congregation  of  the  Malabarites  was  wholly  converted  by 
the  Capuchins,  and  in  1686,  the  leader  of  this  congrega¬ 
tion  built  a  church  with  his  own  money  and  handed  it 
over  to  these  missionaries.  The  “Apostle  of  the  Mala¬ 
barites”  was  the  Capuchin,  Spiritus  of  Tours,  who  came 
to  Pondicherry  in  1686,  and  who  mastered  the  Tamil 
language  and  worked  for  many  years  among  the  Malabar¬ 
ites.  In  1690  the  Capuchins  extended  their  labors  to 
Alambarve,  Carampuly,  Marcane,  Cuddalore,  Manjacu- 
pum  and  Cadapamkam,  south  of  Pallar;  and  from  1671 
to  1688  were  the  only  missionaries  at  Pondicherry  and  in 
these  districts.  In  1686  the  Jesuits,  who  had  been  exiled 

u  Halm,  op.  c.,  p.  357. 


MODERN-  MISSIONS:  1498-1700 


105 


from  Siam,  came  to  Pondicherry  and  worked  side  by  side 
with  the  Capuchins  till  1693,  when  the  Dutch  took  Pondi¬ 
cherry  and  banished  all  missionaries.  Six  years  later 
Pondicherry  was  restored  to  the  French,  and  the  three 
Capuchin  missionaries,  Frs.  James,  Lawrence,  Spiritus, 
and  a  lay  Brother,  returned  and  laid  the  foundation  of 
a  flourishing  Christian  community,  consisting  of  pariahs 
and  Brahmans,  rich  and  poor,  Europeans  and  Hindus.12 

Capuchins  at  Surat. — The  Capuchin  mission  at  Surat 
was  established  by  Fr.  Zeno  of  Beauge  in  1640.  The 
manner  in  which  the  Capuchins  of  this  mission  came  to 
India  is  interesting.  A  certain  youth  named  Don  Mat¬ 
thews  de  Castro  Malo,  of  the  Canarese  tribe  and  a  Brah¬ 
man  by  birth,  had  gone  to  Rome  to  prepare  for  the  priest¬ 
hood.  He  was  ordained  priest  by  Pope  Urban  VIII.  in 
1637,  consecrated  Bishop  of  Chrysopolis  and  appointed 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Kingdoms  of  Golconda,  Adelkhan 
and  Bizapore.  Before  leaving  Rome  in  1639,  Don  Mat¬ 
thews  asked  for  European  missionaries,  adding  that  they 
should  be  -truly  apostolic  men  and  lovers  of  poverty.  The 
Pope  replied  that  he  knew  of  no  better  men  in  this  respect 
than  the  Capuchins.  But  the  bishop  asked  for  the  Thea- 
tine  Fathers,  which  request  the  Pope  readily  granted, 
ordering  him  at  the  same  time  to  take  with  him  to  India 
a  number  of  Capuchins  from  Syria  and  Palestine,  to  assist 
him  in  his  work.  When  Don  Matthews  arrived  at  Pales¬ 
tine,  the  Capuchin  Superior  of  the  mission  sent  Frs. 
Peter  of  Piviers  and  Zeno  of  Beauge,  and  a  lay  Brother, 
Stephen  of  Castellerault  with  the  bishop.  They  left  Pales¬ 
tine  in  1639  and  arrived  at  Goa  on  November  26  of  the 
same  year.  On  their  arrival  the  bishop,  with  the  fickle¬ 
ness  and  instability  of  character  so  natural  to  the  natives 
of  India,  left  the  Capuchins  at  Goa  and  started  quickly 
for  Adelkham.  The  Capuchins  resolved  that  one  of  the 
Fathers  return  to  Surat,  where  the  governor  had  shown 

12Rocco  da  Cesinale,  0.  M.  Cap.,  Storia  delle  Missioni  dei  Cap- 
puocini,  Roma,  1873,  pp.  322-328. 


10G 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


them  much  kindness;  that  Br.  Stephen  go  to  Europe  and 
inform  the  superiors  of  all  that  happened;  while  Er. 
Peter  remained  at  Goa  where  the  viceroy  had  kindly  re¬ 
ceived  them.  Fr.  Zeno  immediately  proceeded  to  Surat. 
Fr.  Peter  remained  at  Goa  and  soon  became  an  object 
of  suspicion  and  jealousy  to  the  Portuguese,  because  he 
had  not  come  to  India  with  a  license  from  the  Portuguese 
Government.  Soon  after  he  was  forced  to  embark  for 
Europe.  Later  on  Fr.  Peter  returned  to  Surat. 

Fr.  Zeno,  the  founder  of  the  mission  at  Surat,  soon  won 
the  affection  and  the  esteem  of  the  governor,  and  of  the 
commanders  of  the  English  and  Dutch  forts.  In  1651 
he  went  to  Goa  to  obtain  the  release  of  Fr.  Ephrem  of 
Hevers,  who  had  been  arrested  and  held  for  the  Inquisi¬ 
tion  on  false  charges.  Hot  being  able  to  accomplish  any¬ 
thing  at  Goa,  he  went  to  Madras.  In  1652  Frs.  Mary 
of  Orleans  and  Ambrose  of  Preuilly  came  to  Surat.  Fr. 
Ambrose  had  come  from  Persia  to  Goa  in  behalf  of  Fr. 
Ephrem.  He  now  took  charge  of  the  Surat  mission  while 
Fr.  Zeno  remained  at  Madras.  Fr.  Ambrose  was  very 
highly^  esteemed  by  the  governor.  When  in  1659  the 
Dutch  won  signal  victories  over  the  Portuguese,  he  inter¬ 
ceded  with  the  Dutch  commander  and  effected  an  exchange 
of  prisoners.  His  many  acts  of  charity,  especially  in  re¬ 
deeming  slaves  and  rescuing  Christian  girls,  excited  the 
bitter  hatred  of  the  Mohammedans.  He  labored  with 
much  fruit  until  his  death  in  1675.  When  in  1664  Sivayi 
took  the  Mogul  part  of  Surat  by  surprise,  the  church  and 
house  of  the  Capuchins  were  spared  by  special  order  of 
Sivayi. 

While  the  French  Capuchins  at  Surat  were  quietly  dis¬ 
charging  their  duties,  some  of  the  Portuguese  Jesuit 
Fathers  of  Goa  arrived  and  settled  at  Surat  (about  1670). 
For  several  years  they  tried  to  put  this  mission  under 
the  Portuguese  patronage  and  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Goa,  though  in  fact  it  was  subject  to  the 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Great  Mogul  appointed  by  the 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1498-1700 


107 


Propaganda.  Pailing  in  their  endeavors  the  Jesuits  left 
the  mission  (1680).  In  1693  some  French  Jesuits  landed 
at  Surat,  and  immediately  began  exercising  parochial 
duties  in  the  city  without  asking  permission  of  Fr.  Ives, 
who  had  been  appointed  vicar-general  by  the  Bishop  of 
Hieropolis.  The  vicar-general  sent  a  report  to  Borne,  and 
the  Holy  See  issued  a  decree,  dated  April  28,  1698,  which 
among  other  things  stated  that  the  Jesuits  had  no  right  to 
establish  a  new  mission  at  Surat  without  special  privilege 
from  Borne.  The  Jesuits  then  departed  from  Surat  (about 
1700),  leaving  the  mission  to  its  first  occupants,  the 
Capuchins.13 

The  Capuchins  at  Madras . — Fr.  Ephrem,  who  had  come 
from  Palestine  to  Surat  in  1640,  founded  the  mission  at 
Madras.  Having  received  orders  to  proceed  to  Pegu  or 
Achin,  he  left  Surat  in  1641.  At  Pegu,  the  native  Chris¬ 
tians  to  the  number  of  two  thousand  had  been  kept  pris¬ 
oners  by  the  king  of  that  place.  They  had  applied  to  the 
Archbishop  of  Goa  to  send  them  a  priest,  “a  true  mis¬ 
sionary  who  does  not  care  for  money  nor  seek  his  own 
interest.”  After  fifty  days’  journey  of  hardships  and 
perils,  Fr.  Ephrem  arrived  at  Bhagnagar,  the  capital  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Golconda,  where  he  was  accorded  a  royal 
reception  and  soon  won  the  esteem  of  all  by  his  knowledge 
of  the  Arabic  and  Persian  tongues  and  his  expositions  of 
religious  and  scientific  questions.  Arriving  at  Madras  he 
was  cordially  received  by  the  Christians  who  besought 
him  to  stay  and  attend  their  spiritual  wants,  but  he  ex¬ 
plained  to  them  that  he  must  go  on  to  Pegu.  Thereupon 
eighteen  of  the  principal  Catholics  made  a  request  which 
they  presented  to  the  English  Governor  of  Fort  St.  George, 
entreating  him  to  forbid  Fr.  Ephrem  to  depart.  They 
complained  that  they  were  like  animals  in  their  religion 
and  that  the  priests  of  San  Thome  under  whose  spiritual 
direction  they  were,  sought  only  their  own  interests.  The 
English  Governor  approved  of  this  petition,  for  it  was 
18 Franciscan  Annals  of  India,  Agra,  1910,  Vol.  1  (passim). 


108 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


distasteful  to  the  English  to  have  the  Portuguese  priests 
of  San  Thome  coming  into  their  territory.  The  governor 
accordingly  invited  Er.  Ephrem  to  remain  at  Madras. 
Fr.  Ephrem  finally  consented  and  the  governor  ordered 
a  church  built  for  him  (June  8,  1642).  Fr.  Ephrem 
wrote  to  Pome  stating  that  there  was  a  more  abundant 
harvest  of  souls  at  Madras  than  at  Pegu.  In  due  time 
the  Pope  formally  established  the  Capuchin  mission  at 
Madras. 

Portuguese  Plot  against  Fr.  Ephrem. — The  Portuguese 
Government  had  already  put  many  obstacles  in  the  way 
to  frustrate  the  action  of  Pome,  and  the  vicar  apostolic 
and  missionaries  sent  out  by  the  Propaganda  had  to  un¬ 
dergo  many  vexations  on  the  part  of  the  Portuguese.  They 
saw  with  an  evil  eye  the  success  of  Fr.  Ephrem,  who 
attracted  such  large  numbers  of  their  flock  to  Madras,  and 
therefore  resolved  upon  his  ruin.  False  accusations  were 
brought  against  him  and  they  tried  by  various  means  to 
ensnare  him.  Er.  Ephrem  was  one  day  called  upon  to 
mediate  in  a  quarrel  purposely  picked  between  the  Eng¬ 
lish  and  the  Portuguese,  and  no  sooner  had  he  entered 
San  Thome,  than  he  was  seized  by  the  officers  of  the  In¬ 
quisition,  placed  in  a  ship  and  at  once  taken  to  Goa,  where 
he  was  handed  over  to  the  Inquisition  to  be  burned.  He 
was  the  first  victim  in  the  long  line  of  confessors  who  suf¬ 
fered  for  the  same  cause  of  upholding  papal  prerogative 
against  Portuguese  aggression. 

The  Inquisition. — There  were  four  tribunals  of  the 
Inquisition  in  the  Portuguese  Dominions,  three  in  Por¬ 
tugal  itself  and  one  in  Goa.  These  were  all  sovereign 
tribunals  from  which  there  was  no  appeal.  The  Inquisi¬ 
tors  were  nominated  and  confirmed  by  the  Pope.  In  Goa 
the  Grand  Inquisitor  was  more  respected  than  the  arch¬ 
bishop  or  even  the  viceroy.  His  authority  extended  over 
all  the  laity  and  clergy,  except  the  archbishop,  his  vicar 
and  the  viceroy,  and  even  these  could  be  thrown  into 
prison  on  receiving  orders  from  Lisbon.  There  were  two 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1498-1700 


109 


Inquisitors  at  Goa,  the  Grand  Inquisitor,  who  was  always 
a  secular  priest,  and  the  Second  Inquisitor,  a  member  of 
the  Order  of  St.  Dominic.  The  Inquisition  considered 
two  or  three  witnesses  sufficient  to  imprison  a  man,  yet 
it  never  contented  itself  with  less  than  seven  to  condemn 
him.  The  Holy  Office  imposed  only  ecclesiastical  punish¬ 
ments,  such  as  excommunication,  whereas  the  government 
meted  out  the  civil  punishment. 

It  was  before  this  Inquisition  that  Er.  Ephrem  was 
brought  (1649).  Fr.  Zeno,  Fr.  Ephrem’ s  former  com¬ 
panion,  came  to  Goa  to  help  him.  Unable  to  accomplish 
anything  at  Goa,  he  went  directly  to  Madras,  where  he 
discovered  the  treachery  which  had  been  practiced  on  Fr. 
Ephrem.  He  resolved  to  get  to  the  bottom  of  it.  He  con¬ 
fided  his  plans  to  the  captain  of  the  Fort,  who,  like  his 
soldiers,  was  much  angered  at  the  outrage  committed 
against  Fr.  Ephrem.  With  the  aid  of  thirty  soldiers  the 
Governor  of  San  Thome  was  ambushed  and  carried  to  the 
Capuchin  Convent  at  Madras,  where  he  was  kept  pris¬ 
oner  until  he  promised  to  effect  the  release  of  Fr.  Ephrem. 
Soon  after  this  the  governor  escaped.  Meanwhile  the 
imprisonment  of  Fr.  Ephrem  caused  a  sensation  in  Eu¬ 
rope.  His  brother,  M.  de  Chateaux  des  Bois,  complained 
to  the  King  of  Portugal,  who  ordered  the  immediate  re¬ 
lease  of  Fr.  Ephrem.  The  Pope  also  threatened  the  clergy 
of  Goa  with  excommunication,  but  all  this  was  to  no  avail, 
and  Fr.  Ephrem  had  to  thank  none  but  the  King  of 
Golconda  for  his  liberation.  The  king  who  was  at  war 
with  the  Rajah  of  the  Province  of  the  Carnatic,  had 
his  army  close  to  San  Thome,  and  sent  his  troops  with 
orders  to  lay  siege  to  San  Thome  and  kill  all  the  inhabi¬ 
tants  if  the  governor  would  not  immediately  release  Er. 
Ephrem.  This  measure  finally  brought  about  his  release 
in  1652.  After  fifteen  days  spent  at  Goa,  Fr.  Ephrem 
passed  on  to  Madras. 

Fr.  Zeno  had  been  laboring  at  Madras  in  Fr.  Ephrem’s 
place  since  1650.  In  1663  Mgr.  Pallu,  Bishop  of  Helio- 


110 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


polis  and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  China  came  to  Madras  and 
administered  confirmation  to  3,000  persons,  among  whom 
was  the  wife  of  the  English  Governor.  At  this  time  the 
number  of  Catholics  had  increased  considerably,  chiefly 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  King  of  Golconda  had  captured 
the  town  of  San  Thome  in  1662  when  nearly  all  the 
Catholics  left  the  place  to  reside  at  Madras.  Catholics 
flocked  to  Madras  from  many  other  places  even  as  far  off 
as  Cochin,  which  had  been  captured  by  the  Dutch.  About 
this  time  the  Capuchins  opened  a  school  at  Madras,  where 
Catholic  children  were  educated  in  the  Portuguese,  In¬ 
dian  and  Malabari  languages.  In  1664  Fr.  Zeno  was 
sent  as  chaplain  to  the  troops  into  the  interior  by  the 
Agent  of  the  English  Company.  On  July  1,  1672,  the 
French  took  San  Thome  by  storm.  In  1674  it  was  sur¬ 
rendered  to  the  Dutch,  who  were  soon  forced  to  give  it 
over  to  the  Nawab.  During  these  turbulent  times  the 
Portuguese  sought  refuge  at  Madras,  and  among  them  the 
Bishop  of  San  Thome.  Thirty  years  had  passed  away 
since  Fr.  Ephrem’s  arrival  at  Madras  before  he  succeeded 
in  procuring  a  church  which  answered  his  needs.  It  was 
only  in  1675  that  a  handsome  Catholic  church  was  opened 
for  service.  In  1693  Fr.  Zeno  died  and  soon  after, 
Ephrem,  and  new  missionaries  continued  the  work.14 

uRocco  da  Cesinale,  0.  M.  Cap.,  op.  <?.,  pp.  302-322. 


CHAPTER  III 


MODERN  MISSIONS  ( Continued ) 

1700-1886 

True  to  the  ideals  which  had  led  them  to  the  mission 
land  of  India,  the  majority  of  the  Religious  Orders  spoken 
of  in  the  preceding  chapters  continued  energetically  to 
carry  on  their  heroic  labor  of  preaching  the  Gospel  not 
only  to  the  pagans,  but  also  to  the  Christians  already  in 
the  fold  of  Christ. 

The  Capuchins  at  Surat. — Under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Discalced  Carmelites,  to  whom  the  government  of  the 
Vicariate  of  the  Great  Mogul  had  been  entrusted  (1696), 
the  Capuchins  continued  their  labors  in  Surat  during  the 
eighteenth  century  uninterruptedly  till  1764,  when  its 
administration  was  given  to  the  Carmelites.  By  the  year 
1818  the  last  of  the  Capuchins  had  left  Surat. 

The  Capuchins  at  Madras. — The  lot  of  the  Capuchins 
at  Madras  was  fraught  with  many  difficulties.  Aside  from 
the  frequent  collisions  between  the  Portuguese  and  Eng¬ 
lish  authorities  regarding  the  jurisdiction  of  the  mis¬ 
sionaries  and  their  flock,  much  inconvenience  had  to  be 
suffered  in  order  to  compete  successfully  with  the  Protes¬ 
tants,  who  had  been  admitted  into  the  same  field.  When, 
in  the  war  of  1744  between  France  and  England,  the 
French  took  the  city  of  Madras,  the  Capuchins  and  their 
Christians  were  accused  of  treason,  and  as  a  result  the 
Fathers  were  deprived  of  their  property  and  ordered  to 
quit  the  city.  Some  years  later,  however,  they  were 
granted  an  indemnity  for  some  of  their  property  and  were 
permitted  to  return  to  Madras. 

'  111 


112 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


New  Mission  of  Tibet  and  Nepal. — The  cradle  of 
Capuchin  missionary  endeavor  in  Northern  India  was  the 
so-called  Tibet-Nepal  mission.  This  mission  came  into 
existence  in  1703  when  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Prop¬ 
aganda  called  upon  the  Capuchin  Friars  of  the  Italian 
Province  of  the  Marches  to  undertake  the  evangelization 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Tibet.  In  answer  to  this  appeal  six 
Friars  set  out  from  Rome  in  1704  and  after  a  long  journey 
landed  at  Chandernagore  in  French  Bengal  in  1706. 
Here  they  established  a  station,  and  leaving  two  of  their 
number  to  care  for  it,  pushed  forward  to  Patna,  in  the 
Kingdom  of  Behar,  where  they  also  founded  a  mission 
post.  They  departed  from  Patna,  January  11,  1707,  and 
the  following  month  found  them  at  Badgao,  in  the  King¬ 
dom  of  Nepal.  Without  stopping  long  here  the  Friars 
resumed  their  journey  towards  Lhasa,  the  capital  of  Tibet, 
their  ultimate  destination.  On  the  19th  of  June  1707 
they  arrived  at  Lhasa  and  were  well  received  both  by 
the  king  and  the  people. 

In  the  ensuing  years  the  Capuchins  labored  in  this  field 
successfully  till  1712  when,  owing  to  the  want  of  means 
for  their  sustenance,  they  were  reduced  to  starvation,  and, 
much  to  their  regret,  were  forced  to  abandon  Lhasa.  They 
also  withdrew  from  Nepal  and  concentrated  their  forces 
at  Patna.  Here  they  set  about  making  preparations  for 
another  attempt  to  evangelize  Tibet  and  Nepal,  which, 
in  spite  of  the  hardships  they  entailed,  had  borne  promise 
of  a  large  harvest.  Aided  by  the  recommendation  of  the 
Bishop  of  Mylapore,  the  Capuchins  appealed  to  Rome  for 
further  means  of  support.  The  Propaganda  hearkened 
to  this  appeal  and  in  1714  twelve  new  missionaries  left 
the  Eternal  City  for  the  Tibet  mission  with  the  assurance 
of  a  permanent  comfortable  allowance  from  the  Propa¬ 
ganda  and  with  a  large  personal  donation  from  Pope 
Clement  XI.  In  1715  the  new  mission  band  advanced 
into  Nepal,  where  the  majority  of  the  missionaries  re¬ 
mained  for  a  time.  Three  out  of  the  twelve,  among  them 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1700-1886 


113 


the  later  renowned  Fr.  Francesco  Orazio  della  Pennabilli, 
proceeded  to  Lhasa  (1716).  Here  they  encountered  the 
Jesuit  missionary,  Fr.  Desideri,  who  had  reached  the 
capital  of  Tibet  in  1716,  a  few  months  earlier  than  the 
Capuchins.  This  Jesuit  Father  remained  in  Tibet  till 
1721.  His  presence  at  Lhasa  led  to  some  discussion  be¬ 
tween  the  J esuits  and  the  Capuchins,  the  former  claiming 
as  their  own  the  Tibetan  mission  as  part  of  their  Agra 
mission,  a  claim  to  which  of  course  the  latter  were  by  no 
means  willing  to  accede,  since  they  had  been  sent  directly 
by  the  Pope  himself.  The  matter  was  referred  to  Pome, 
and  in  1732  was  finally  decided  in  favor  of  the  Capuchins.1 

Although  the  work  of  the  Capuchins  was  progressing  at 
Lhasa,  nevertheless  many  obstacles  stood  in  their  way. 
Chief  among  these  was  the  violent  strife  between  the  civil 
and  religious  elements  of  the  people.  During  this  period 
of  unrest  the  position  of  the  missionaries  became  precar¬ 
ious.  It  was  undoubtedly  due  to  this  that  the  Friars  made 
an  effort  to  secure  a  foothold  elsewhere  in  Tibet,  where, 
in  case  of  necessity,  they  could  have  refuge.  They  there¬ 
fore  opened  a  station  at  Drog-ne  (1718),  in  the  Tibetan 
Province  of  Takpo  south  of  Lhasa,  which  place  they  had 
visited  some  years  previously.  After  several  years  the, 
quarrel  was  ended,  and  due  to  their  literary  ability  and 
their  knowledge  of  medicine  remarkable  successes  were 
scored  in  the  mission. 

By  the  year  1732  the  number  of  the  missionaries  in 
Lhasa  was  reduced  to  two,  and  these  found  themselves 
on  the  verge  of  starvation.  As  a  result  the  Tibetan  mission 
was  once  more  abandoned  for  some  time. 

Nepal. — For  some  two  years  the  labors  of  the  Capuchins 
bore  abundant  fruit  in  Nepal,  and  particularly  at  the 
capital,  Katmandu.  A  charter  was  granted  them  which 
allowed  them  to  preach  and  to  reside  in  the  capital ;  more¬ 
over  a  royal  manifesto  was  issued  in  1735,  which  gave 

1  Rev.  Fr.  Felix  Finck,  O.  M.  Cap.,  Franciscan  Annals  of  India , 
Agra,  1915,  Vol.  VI,  p.  96.  * 


114 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


liberty  of  conscience  to  the  king’s  subjects  to  embrace 
Christianity.  At  this  time  the  personnel  of  the  whole 
Tibetan-Nepalese  mission  numbered  three  missionaries, 
two  of  whom  were  engaged  in  Kadmandu,  Nepal  and  one 
at  Patna  in  India.  When  this  fact  was  communicated 
to  the  Procurator-General  in  Pome  three  more  mission¬ 
aries  were  sent  out. 

End  of  Tibet  Mission. — In  1738  ten  more  Capuchins 
left  Pome  and  eventually  reached  Lhasa  in  1741.  In 
1742  a  bitter  persecution  instigated  by  the  Chinese  govern¬ 
ment  officials  broke  out  against  the  newly  converted  Chris¬ 
tians.  Although  the  Friars  were  not  molested,  their  in¬ 
fluence  began  to  wane,  so  that,  seeing  profitable  work 
totally  precluded,  they  decided  to  abandon  their  cherished 
mission  in  Tibet.  In  April  1745  they  crossed  the  frontier 
into  Nepal,  and  while  some  remained  in  the  different 
stations  of  Nepal,  others  found  refuge  in  Bettiah. 

End  of  Nepal  Mission. — At  Nepal  the  activity  of  the 
Capuchins  continued  to  spread.  Simultaneously  they  es¬ 
tablished  three  convents  in  each  of  the  three  cities  of 
Katmandu,  Bhatgaon  and  Pat  an.  In  order  to  gain  access 
to  the  people  they  exercised  the  profession  of  medicine. 
In  this  way  ample  opportunity  was  found  to  baptize  in¬ 
fants  who  had  fallen  seriously  ill.  Notwithstanding  the 
early  promise  of  this  field,  its  success,  due  to  the  con¬ 
tinuous  wars  with  which  Nepal  was  afflicted,  was  not  to 
be  permanent.  When,  in  1769,  Nepal  was  taken  by  the 
Ghurkas,  the  mission  was  suppressed.  The  missionaries 
gathered  together  the  Christians  who  were  able  to  escape 
and  fled  with  them  to  Churee,  north  of  Bettiah,  on  British 
territory,  thus  forming  the  first  native  colony  of  Chris¬ 
tians  in  Northern  India.2  From  this  time  Nepal  has  been 
closed  to  all  missionary  endeavor,  and  the  Capuchins  have 
the  distinction  of  having  established  churches  and  con¬ 
vents  in  what  is  now  the  “forbidden  land”  of  Nepal;  they 
were  the  first  and  last  missionaries  in  this  kingdom. 

2  Analecta  Capiiccinorum,  Romse,  Vol.  XXI,  1905,  p.  112. 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1700-1886 


115 


To-day  no  Europeans,  except  British  agents,  are  permitted 
to  reside  there. 

Patna. — The  mission  of  Patna  has  continued  in  ex¬ 
istence  to  the  present  day.  Few  details  are  known  of  the 
labors  of  the  Eriars,  for  the  reason  that  the  registers  were 
destroyed  by  the  rebels  in  the  war  of  1763.  Upon  the 
arrival  of  Fr.  Joseph  of  Rovato,  Prefect  of  the  Nepal 
mission,  in  1769,  plans  were  made  for  the  building  of  a 
cathedral.  In  1772  the  corner  stone  was  laid,  and  the 
building  was  completed  in  1779.  This  cathedral  exists 
even  at  the  present  time.  From  1845  to  1886  Patna  was 
the  center  of  an  apostolic  prefecture,  when  it  was  incor¬ 
porated  into  the  newly  erected  Diocese  of  Allahabad. 

Bettiah. — When  the  Capuchin  missionaries  departed 
from  Tibet  (1745),  Fr.  Joseph,  Count  of  Bernini,  born 
at  Garignano,  made  his  way  to  Bettiah  where  he  met  with 
a  cordial  reception  from  the  rajah.  In  gratitude  to  this 
missionary  for  restoring  the  health  of  the  queen  some 
years  before,  the  ruler  offered  an  asylum  to  the  Capuchins, 
and  petitioned  the  Holy  See  to  establish  a  permanent 
mission  in  his  dominions.  After  a  literary  and  apostolic 
career  of  twenty-two  years  Fr.  Joseph  died  in  1761.  Up 
to  the  present  day  he  is  esteemed  as  a  saint  by  the  Chris¬ 
tians  at  Bettiah.  After  the  suppression  of  the  Nepalese 
mission  the  fugitives  betook  themselves  to  Bettiah,  but 
shortly  after  settled  at  Churee.  These  Christians  still 
speak  the  Nepalese  language. 

Theatine  Fathers. — The  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century  also  found  the  Theatine  Fathers,  under  the  pro¬ 
tection  of  the  English  Government,  spreading  the  Gospel 
in  India.  Their  unfailing  energy  met  with  success  es¬ 
pecially  at  Cuddalore  in  the  Carnatic  Province. 

Carmelite  Fathers. — With  the  assistance  of  the  English 
Government,  the  Discalced  Carmelites  continued  their 
activity  in  India  during  the  eighteenth  century.  Owing 
to  their  appointment  to  exercise  jurisdiction  in  the  Vi¬ 
cariate  of  Malabar  not  only  over  the  Thomas  Christians 


116 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


but  also  over  tbe  subjects  of  tbe  English  and  Dutch  Gov¬ 
ernments,  a  conflict  arose  between  the  authorities  at  Rome 
and  the  Portuguese  Government.  As  shall  be  seen  later 
the  Portuguese  looked  upon  this  movement  as  an  infringe¬ 
ment  upon  their  ancient  right  of  patronage.  In  consider¬ 
ation  of  these  continual  remonstrances  Pope  Clement  XI. 
restricted  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Carmelites  to  the  terri¬ 
tory  in  which  Portugal’s  bishops  were  permanently  hin¬ 
dered  in  their  work.  But  Portugal  was  not  appeased 
and  did  not  hesitate  to  give  evidence  in  many  ways  of 
her  displeasure. 

In  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Malabar  the  Carmelites 
established  stations  at  Verapoly,  Cettiatti  and  Sattara- 
cerri,  three  miles  from  Cochin.  When  the  Goanese  clergy 
were  expelled  from  Bombay  by  the  English  (1720),  this 
mission  was  also  entrusted  to  the  Carmelites.  Upon  their 
refusal  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Padroado 
authorities,  they  were  expelled  from  the  Vicariate  of  the 
Great  Mogul  in  1707,  which  had  been  entrusted  to  them 
in  1696. 

Augusiinians,  Dominicans  and  Franciscans. — The  Au- 
gustinians,  Dominicans  and  Eranciscans  were  not  so 
active  in  India  during  the  eighteenth  century  as  in  the 
preceding  period.  Credit,  however,  must  be  accorded  the 
Augustinians  in  Bengal,  who,  laboring  against  great  odds, 
succeeded  in  recruiting  a  goodly  number  of  priests  for  the 
missions. 

Ceylon. — Under  the  administration  of  the  Portuguese 
who,  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  became 
the  political  masters  of  Jaffna  and  the  whole  coast  land 
of  Ceylon,  the  Catholic  Religion  enjoyed  full  liberty  until 
1658  when  the  Dutch  gained  the  ascendancy  and  opened 
a  fierce  persecution  against  the  Church.  At  this  time 
there  were  from  forty  to  fifty  priests  on  the  island  be¬ 
longing  to  the  three^  Orders  of  the  Dominicans,  Eran¬ 
ciscans  and  Jesuits.  The  Dutch  expelled  the  missionaries, 
and  either  destroyed  their  churches  or  converted  them 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1700-1886 


117 


into  Protestant  places  of  worship.  An  edict  was  issued 
which  threatened  with  death  all  who  in  any  way  assisted 
the  missionaries.  In  1715  Catholics  were  forbidden  to 
conduct  any  public  worship.  Parents  were  compelled  to 
have  their  children  baptized  by  Protestant  ministers,  and 
to  send  them  to  their  schools  and  churches.  Protestantism 
having  in  this  way  been  introduced  by  force  into  Ceylon, 
its  adherents  in  Jaffna  alone  counted  150,000. 

Native  Oratorians. — In  the  midst  of  this  sad  state  of 
affairs,  Pr.  Joseph  Yaz  of  the  Oratory  of  St.  Philip  Neri, 
and  a  native  Indian,  came  to  the  rescue  of  the  oppressed 
Catholics  of  Ceylon  in  1686.  Under  the  guise  of  a  beggar 
he  carried  on  the  apostolic  work  with  such  splendid  re¬ 
sults  that  his  superior  decided  to  send  ten  other  priests 
of  the  same  Congregation  to  lend  him  assistance  (1699). 
January  16,  1711  marks  the  death  of  Pr.  Joseph  Yaz  at 
Kandy.  In  1717,  while  the  persecution  still  raged,  there 
were  70,000  Catholics  on  the  island.  Towards  the  end 
of  their  reign  over  Ceylon,  the  Dutch  restored  to  the 
Catholics  freedom  of  worship,  not,  however,  without  some 
restrictions. 

In  1796  the  English  succeeded  to  the  government  of 
Ceylon,  and  in  1806  all  the  proscriptions  made  by  the 
Dutch  were  cancelled.  Immediately  the  number  of  Prot¬ 
estants  decreased.  The  majority  of  those  who  were 
Protestant  only  in  appearance  returned  either  to  the 
Catholic  Religion,  or  to  paganism.  The  number  of  Cath¬ 
olics,  on  the  other  hand,  in  1830,  had  already  reached  the 
150,000  mark. 

Burma  and  the  Barnahites. — Burma  originally  con¬ 
sisted  of  the  independent  Kingdoms  of  Burma,  Arakan, 
Ava  and  Pegu.  The  actual  work  of  evangelizing  the 
heathen  of  Burma  began  under  Pope  Innocent  XIII,  who, 
in  1720,  entrusted  the  field  to  the  Barnabite  Fathers. 
With  much  difficulty  these  missionaries  finally  succeeded 
in  obtaining  permission  to  preach  the  Gospel  of  Christ 
unhindered  in  this  field.  In  1745  a  persecution  almost 


118 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


completely  destroyed  this  mission.  In  1777  it  was  re¬ 
organized,  but  twenty  years  later  was  laid  in  ruins.  Fi¬ 
nally  in  1830  it  was  resuscitated. 

Jesuits  at  Madura . — The  desuits  continued  their  activi¬ 
ties  in  the  eighteenth  century  with  a  success  equal  to  their 
unceasing  efforts.  Not  only  did  they  support  the  stations 
and  institutions  of  learning  established  in  Goa  and  other 
places  during  the  seventeenth  century,  but  also  extended 
their  influence  by  the  foundation  of  many  other  stations. 
This  was  particularly  the  case  in  Madura.  This  mission, 
which  comprised  the  Kingdoms  of  Madura,  Tan j ore,  Ma- 
rawa  and  Gingi,  counted  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century  150,000  Christians,  with  eleven  resident  and 
eight  missionary  priests.  In  order  to  care  adequately  for 
the  needs  of  the  Christians  the  Jesuits  were  compelled  to 
relinquish  hold  on  their  institutions  for  the  training  of 
Pandaram  missionaries,  and  to  put  the  priests  into  the 
field  of  actual  missionary  work  as  Brahman  Saniassy . 

Important  figures  of  this  time  were  Fr.  Bouchet,  who 
after  a  successful  career  of  eight  years  at  Madura,  became 
Superior  of  the  Carnatic  mission  in  1703,  and  Fr.  Francis 
Laynez,  who  after  the  martyrdom  of  Fr.  John  de  Britto, 
labored  heroically  in  Marawa,  and  was  later  appointed 
Superior  of  Madura,  and  Bishop  of  Mylapore.  The  latter 
died  in  1712. 

Jesuits  at  Mysore. — Another  successful  field  of  the 
Jesuits  was  the  mission  of  Mysore,  established  in  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  In  1710  this  mission 
possessed  six  stations  with  resident  priests.  Persecution 
was  frequently  the  lot  of  these  missionaries. 

Mission  of  Tanjore. — This  mission  was  also  the  scene 
of  bitter  persecution  in  the  eighteenth  century.  The 
Christian  communities  of  Tanjore  were  attended  by  the 
Jesuit  Fathers  of  Madura.  Among  those  who  underwent 
severe  trials  at  the  hands  of  the  fanatic  rulers  were  Fr. 
Joseph  Carvalho  and  Fr.  Charles  Michael  Bartoldus. 

Mission  of  Pondicherry. — The  important  mission  of 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1700-1886 


119 


Pondicherry,  founded  in  the  seventeenth  century,  con¬ 
tinued  to  flourish  in  the  hands  of  the  Capuchins  and  the 
Jesuits.  In  1699  a  division  was  made  in  which  the 
Capuchins  were  given  charge  of  the  French  and  the  Portu¬ 
guese,  and  the  Jesuits  received  the  heathen  missions.  Be¬ 
sides  a  college  in  which  Latin,  philosophy  and  theology 
were  taught,  the  Jesuits  established  a  splendid  naval 
school  in  1713. 

Fr.  Joseph  Beschi. — One  of  the  most  prominent  Jesuit 
missionaries  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  Fr.  Joseph 
Beschi,  famous  not  only  for  his  apostolic  zeal  in  meeting 
the  needs  of  his  flock,  but  above  all  for  his  literary  attain¬ 
ments.  Fr.  Beschi  was  active  chiefly  in  Trichinopoly 
where,  during  the  reign  of  a  Mongolian  Nabob,  he  was 
appointed  to  an  important  political  position.  The  last 
few  years  of  his  life  were  spent  at  Manapar  on  the  Fishery 
Coast.  He  died  about  1746. 3 

The  Malabar  Rite  Dispute. — The  work  of  the  Jesuits  in 
India  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  again 
became  the  subject  of  the  controversy  concerning  the  Mala¬ 
bar  Bites.  The  old  contention  which  had  been  at  rest  for 
nearly  a  century  was  reopened  with  redoubled  violence. 
It  came  about  in  this  wise.  A  number  of  French  had 
settled  at  Pondicherry,  and  the  Capuchins,  besides  having 
charge  of  their  spiritual  welfare  since  1671,  also  con¬ 
ducted  missions  for  the  conversion  of  the  heathen.  Their 
success,  however,  consisted  chiefly  in  converting  members 
of  the  lower  classes.  The  Bishop  of  Mylapore  or  San 
Thome,  hoping  to  produce  more  efficient  results,  decided 
in  1699  to  transfer  the  heathen  mission  to  the  Jesuits  of 
the  Carnatic,  and  restricted  the  Capuchins  to  ministering 
to  the  French  and  Portuguese  settlers.  This  naturally 
proved  unfavorable  to  the  Capuchins.  So  in  1703  they 
lodged  a  complaint  at  Borne  against  the  division  made  by 
the  bishop,  and  at  the  same  time  renewed  the  old  accusa- 

°Dr.  Heinrich  Hahn,  Oeschichte  der  katholischen  Missionen,  Koeln, 
Vol.  II,  1858,  p.  363  ff. 


120 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


tions  which  had  been  brought  against  de  Nobili.  In  re¬ 
gard  to  the  division  Rome  supported  the  bishop.  In  re¬ 
gard  to  the  charges  made  against  the  Jesuits,  Rome  took 
a  different  step.  • 

The  former  trouble  was  not  yet  forgotten,  and  so  Pope 
Clement  XI.  decided  to  obtain  first  hand  information  be¬ 
fore  acting.  Accordingly  on  November  6,  1703,  he  sent 
Charles  Tournon,  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  as  legatus  a 
latere ,  to  visit  the  missions  of  India  and  China.  Arriving 
at  Pondicherry,  he  found  that  he  could  not  get  passage 
to  China  just  then,  and  was  detained  for  eight  months. 
Here  he  conducted  an  investigation  of  the  charges  made 
against  the  Jesuits.  The  manner  in  which  he  made  his 
examination  has  long  been  a  matter  of  discussion.  Some 
have  attributed  the  Legate’s  judgment  of  the  difficulties 
to  the  prejudiced  information  given  him  by  the  Ca¬ 
puchins.4 

In  his  decree  to  the  Jesuits,5  Tournon  says  that  he  was 
prevented  by  ill  health  from  visiting  the  interior.  What 
he  was  unable  to  do  personally,  he  declares,  was  supplied 
by  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  Yenantius  Bouchet,  Superior  of 
the  Carnatic,  and  Charles  Michael  Bartoldus,  a  missionary 
of  Madura.  Upon  the  information  obtained  from  these 
men,  he  furthermore  writes,  he  issued  this  decree  of  six¬ 
teen  articles,  in  which  he  condemns  the  Jesuits  for  allow¬ 
ing  their  neophytes  to  retain  their  former  customs  and 
practices,  and  forbade  them  under  pain  of  severe  censures 
to  continue  in  their  methods.  The  decree  was  dated  June 
23,  1704,  but,  whether  by  accident  or  by  design,  it  was 
made  known  to  the  Superior  of  the  Jesuits  on  July  8, 
just  three  days  before  the  Legate  departed  from  Pondi¬ 
cherry.  In  this  short  time  the  Jesuits  endeavored  to  ex¬ 
plain  their  position,  and  what  the  consequences  would  be 

4  Thomas  J.  Campbell,  S.  J.,  The  Jesuits i,  153^-1921,  New  York, 
1921,  pp.  260,  292;  Marshall,  Christian  Missions,  New  York,  Vol.  I, 
p.  226  ff. 

15  Collectanea  8.  Congregationis  De  Propaganda  Fide .  Romae,  1893, 
pp.  715-718. 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1700-1886 


121 


if  the  decree  were  carried  out.  They  pointed  out  that  it 
would  mean  the  ruin  of  their  missions.  Tournon  was 
finally  persuaded  to  recall  the  threat  of  censures  and  tem¬ 
porarily  to  suspend  that  part  of  the  decree  which  pro¬ 
hibited  the  missionaries  to  minister  to  the  pariahs.  The 
matter  was  referred  to  Rome.  Clement  XI.  with  the 
Congregation  of  the  Holy  Office  confirmed  the  decree  of 
his  Legate,  January  7,  1706,  ordering  that  it  should  be 
put  in  force  until  the  Holy  See  saw  fit  to  provide  other¬ 
wise.  His  successor,  Benedict  XIII.,  went  a  step  farther 
and  enjoined  the  observance  of  the  decree  on  the  bishops 
and  missionaries  of  Madura,  Mysore  and  the  Carnatic, 
December  12,  1727. 

When  Clement  XII.  ascended  the  papal  throne  he 
ordered  an  entirely  new  investigation  of  the  question.  In 
four  meetings,  held  from  January  21  to  September  6, 
1733,  every  article  of  Tournon’s  decree  was  discussed. 
Some  minor  points  were  mitigated.  In  one  article  in 
which  the  practice  of  wearing  a  certain  tally  bearing  an 
image  of  the  idol  Pulleyar  was  condemned,  the  Pope  ac¬ 
knowledged  that  the  missionaries  had  denied  this  charge.6 

After  Benedict  XIV.  had  ascended  the  throne,  the 
Jesuits  once  more  appealed  to  Rome  and  sought  anew  to 
have  this  trying  matter  solved  in  their  favor.  The  pro¬ 
posal  of  this  Pope  was  to  form  a  band  of  missionaries  to 
minister  to  the  pariahs  alone.  This  was  similar  to  the 
arrangement  of  de  Nobili,  who  divided  his  missionaries 
into  two  classes,  Brahman  and  Pandaram.  All  other 
points  of  the  Constitution  of  Clement  XII.  were  sustained. 
So  in  the  Constitution  Omnium  Solicitudinum ,  of  Septem¬ 
ber  12,  1744,  the  question  of  the  Malabar  Rites  was  finally 
settled,  upholding  Tournon  on  all  important  points.7 

Suppression  of  the  Jesuits. — After  the  final  settlement 
of  the  dispute  concerning  the  Malabar  Rites  the  work  of 
the  missionaries  in  India  became  more  unified,  and  al- 

6  Ibidem,  pp.  721-725. 

7  Ibidem,  pp.  714-734. 


122 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


though  the  Jesuits  lost  an  effective  means  of  making  con¬ 
versions,  still  the  missions  entrusted  to  them  would  have 
enjoyed  further  progress,  had  not  another  event  taken 
place  which  rendered  impossible  the  continuation  of  their 
labors.  In  1759  the  Jesuits  were  first  suppressed  in  Por¬ 
tugal  and  her  Possessions,  in  1762  in  the  French  Posses¬ 
sions,  and  finally  Pope  Clement  XIV.,  in  1773,  issued 
the  Brief  which  suppressed  the  entire  Society.  In  the 
colonies  independent  of  Portuguese  Rule  the  twenty-one 
Jesuits  who  had  remained  were  forced  to  abandon  the 
field  owing  to  the  withdrawal  of  all  support  from  Por¬ 
tugal.  At  the  time  of  this  catastrophe  the  Jesuits  had 
charge  of  twenty-four  colleges,  boarding  schools  and  semi¬ 
naries  in  India.  In  1750  the  number  of  Catholics  in  all 
the  Jesuit  missions  of  Southern  India  was  about  290,000, 
and  in  the  other  parts  of  India  not  quite  10,000.  Ac¬ 
cordingly,  at  the  time  of  their  suppression  the  Jesuits 
were  caring  for  about  300,000  Catholics,  about  one-third 
of  the  total  Catholic  population  of  India,  which  in  1750 
amounted  to  not  more  than  one  million.8 

Activity  of  the  Carmelites  in  Former  Jesuit  Missions . 
— After  the  banishment  of  the  Jesuits  from  the  Portuguese 
Possessions  in  1759  and  the  consequent  necessity  of  aban¬ 
doning  the  other  missions  in  their  charge,  new  forces 
entered  the  field  and  filled  the  vacancies.  The  Carmelites 
of  Bombay  accepted  the  missions  of  Agra  and  those  in 
the  neighboring  provinces.  By  1761  they  had  gradually 
taken  over  all  the  Jesuit  missions  in  Northern  India.  The 
southern  Jesuit  missions  of  Madura,  of  the  Carnatic  and 
Mysore  which  were  likewise  entrusted  to  the  Carmelites 
in  1773,  passed  to  the  Capuchins  in  17819  and  some  time 
later,  about  the  year  1810,  into  the  hands  of  the  Priests 
of  the  Society  for  Foreign  Missions  of  Paris,  who  are  still 
active  in  this  field. 

Capuchins  in  Hindostan. — Little  is  known  of  the  work 

*  Die  IcatJiolischen  Missionen ,  Freiburg,  Vol.  L,  1921-1922,  p.  192. 

9  Bullarium^  Capuceinorum ,  Oeniponte,  Vol.  IX,  1884,  p.  151. 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1700-1886 


123 


of  the  Carmelites  in  Northern  India  from  1759  to  1784, 
when  the  missions  were  taken  in  hand  by  the  Capuchins 
of  the  Tibetan  mission.  By  a  decree  of  the  Sacred  Con¬ 
gregation  of  May  17,  1784,  the  northern  part  of  the  Vi¬ 
cariate  of  Bombay  was  separated  and  entrusted  to  the 
Capuchins.  This  new  territory  and  the  old  Capuchin 
missions  in  the  Kingdoms  of  Behar  and  Betti  ah  were 
formed  into  the  so-called  “Tibet-Hindostan  Mission.”  It 
received  its  first  vicar  apostolic  in  1820  in  the  person  of 
the  Rt.  Rev.  Ludovic  Micara,  O.  M.  Cap.,  the  future  Car¬ 
dinal. 

Persecution. — The  clouds  of  misfortune  were  still  gath¬ 
ering  over  India  and  one  storm  after  another  broke  over 
this  stricken  mission  field.  In  a  bloody  persecution  of 
the  Christians  in  Southern  India  by  the  Sultan  of  Mysore, 
Tippu  Sahib  (1781—1799),  over  100,000  faithful  for¬ 
feited  their  lives,  40,000  were  induced  to  apostatize,  and 
in  the  short  space  of  one  year  30,000  were  delivered  over 
to  the  Mohammedans  as  slaves. 

The  French  Revolution. — As  a  result  of  the  outbreak  of 
the  French  Revolution  and  the  warfare  which  ensued 
against  the  Church,  India  was  again  deprived  of  one  of 
her  chief  means  of  support.  Besides  this  the  supply  of 
missionaries  from  Europe  was  also  cut  off.  An  attempt 
was  made  to  multiply  the  vocations  of  native  priests  by 
establishing  a  college  for  their  training  at  Pondicherry, 
but  this  small  supply  was  not  sufficient  to  fill  the  need. 

Status  at  End  of  Eighteenth  Century. — The  severe 
storms  which  swept  over  India  were  disastrous  in  their 
effects.  Owing  to  the  expulsion  of  European  missionaries 
and  the  Portuguese  Schism,  which  shall  be  treated  later 
on,  the  southern  part  of  India  with  the  exclusion  of  the 
French  and  British  Possessions  was  almost  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  the  native  Indo-Portuguese  clergy.  Parishes 
with  native  priests  were  established  by  the  Portuguese 
Government  from  the  mouth  of  the  Indus  to  Cape  Cam- 
orin,  and  from  Cape  Camorin  to  the  Ganges.  In  many 


124 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


places,  however,  these  priests  had  fallen  from  the  ideal  of 
their  vocation  and  sadly  neglected  their  duties.  Bish¬ 
oprics,  hitherto  filled  by  Portugal,  were  often  left  vacant. 
In  this  way  some  of  the  dioceses  in  India  were  left  vacant 
for  as  long  as  a  half  century,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
according  to  previous  arrangements  the  Portuguese  Crown 
was  to  fill  every  vacant  see  within  a  year.  Nevertheless 
the  Catholic  Church  in  India  held  its  own,  nay,  even  in¬ 
creased  slightly  from  1760  to  I860,  in  spite  of  the  Portu¬ 
guese  Schism,  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuit  Order,  the 
French  Revolution,  the  scarcity  of  European  missionaries, 
and  the  sporadic  defections  to  Protestantism.  The  great 
reduction  of  the  number  of  Catholics  toward  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  century  is  a  pure  myth  of  long  standing.10 

Portuguese  Schism . — We  shall  now  speak  of  the  de¬ 
plorable  blow  dealt  the  Church  in  India  by  a  Power  which 
in  former  times  had  done  her  such  untold  good.  In  the 
period  marked  by  St.  Francis  Xavier  and  his  followers 
the  Portuguese  had  lent  abundant  assistance  in  the  open¬ 
ing  of  new  fields,  in  the  erection  of  schools  and  colleges, 
in  the  establishment  of  a  seminary  for  educating  a  native 
clergy,  and  were  therefore  in  a  large  degree  instrumental 
in  achieving  the  numerous  conversions  that  were  made. 

The  Plight  of  Patronage. — In  grateful  acknowledgment 
of  the  munificence  of  the  kings  of  Portugal  towards  the 
missions,  the  popes  granted  the  State  exceptional  privi¬ 
leges.  Leo  X.  granted  Portugal  in  1514  the  right  of 
patronage  or  the  Padroado  over  the  Church  in  all  the 
territory  acquired  in  Asia,  Africa  and  America,  at  the 
same  time  enjoining  upon  the  government  the  duty  of 
supplying  a  sufficient  number  of  missionaries  and  of  pro¬ 
viding  for  the  Church  in  these  parts.  Furthermore,  Paul 
IV.  in  1557  elevated  Goa  to  an  Archbishopric  with  a 
jurisdiction  over  the  Suffragan  Sees  of  Macao,  Funay  in 
Japan,  and  Mylapore,  at  the  same  time  making  it  the 
Primatial  See  of  the  Orient. 

10  Die  katholischen  Missionen,  Freiburg,  Vol.  L,  1922,  p.  192  ff. 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1700-1886 


125 


Rome  Offers  Assistance . — When,  however,  the  tide  of 
Portugal’s  missionary  activity  had  reached  its  climax 
about  the  year  1600,  and  the  time  following  was  marked 
by  a  notable  decline,  the  Holy  See  recognized  Portugal’s 
inability  to  provide  any  longer  for  the  Church  under  her 
patronage  and  determined  to  care  independently  for  the 
spread  of  the  Gospel  in  these  regions.  In  1637  the  Pope 
limited  the  jurisdiction  of  Goa  by  appointing  vicars  apos¬ 
tolic  undel  the  Propaganda,  the  first  at  Deccan,  after¬ 
wards  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  the  Great  Mogul,  and 
the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Bombay.  The  right  to  send 
missionaries  to  the  East  was  also  restricted  to  Portuguese 
political  possessions.  China  and  Japan  were  opened  to 
the  Mendicant  Orders  and  later  to  all  the  missionaries  of 
the  West.  However,  it  happened  that  where  the  vicars 
apostolic  and  the  missionaries  under  the  Propaganda  came 
into  contact  with  the  Portuguese  clergy  there  arose  a  con¬ 
flict  regarding  jurisdiction. 

Threats  from  Rome. — The  continual  warfare  against 
the  Pope’s  representatives  soon  reached  a  climax.  In 
1673  Pope  Clement  X.  threatened  the  insubordinate 
clergy  with  excommunication.  But  to  no  avail.  The 
Archbishop  of  Goa  had  even  begun  propaganda  in  the 
territory  of  the  vicars  apostolic  in  order  to  win  the  people 
to  his  cause.  How  many  won  the  crown  of  martyrdom  at 
the  hands  of  those  who  professed  to  be  doing  God’s  work 
has  not  been  recorded  in  the  annals  of  Indian  history.  But 
the  Rt.  Rev.  Anastasius  Hartmann,  O.  M.  Cap.,  tells  us  of 
the  death  of  the  Papal  Legate,  Cardinal  Tournon,  who 
was  subjected  to  such  harsh  treatment  by  the  Portuguese 
that  he  died  a  martyr  to  his  Faith  at  Macao  in  17 10. 11 
“His  blood  cries  to  you,”  were  the  prophetic  words 
the  Pope  addressed  to  the  King  of  Portugal  upon  this 
event. 

Church  Left  to  Decay  by  Portugal. — As  Portugal  con- 

11  Adrian  Imliof  and  Adelhelm  Jann,  O.  M.  Cap.,  Anastasius  Hart¬ 
mann,  Luzern,  1903,  p.  153.  \ 


126 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


tinued  to  lose  her  territory  to  the  Dutch  and  English,  she 
became  too  enfeebled  to  exercise  her  right  of  patronage. 
But  her  attitude  was  not  to  be  changed.  Not  satisfied 
until  the  influence  of  Home  would  be  entirely  wiped  out 
in  her  possessions,  she  withdrew  all  material  subvention, 
of  her  former  dioceses  and  even  forbade  the  civil  authori¬ 
ties  to  lend  any  assistance  in  this  respect. 

Pope  Again  Interferes. — During  the  period  of  the 
French  Devolution  the  popes  directed  their  attention  to 
affairs  in  Europe  to  such  an  extent  that  the  condition  of 
India  was  practically  overlooked.  Only  with  the  election 
of  Gregory  XVI.,  who  had  previously  filled  the  office  of 
Cardinal  Prefect  of  the  Propaganda  and  was  therefore 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  situation  in  India,  was 
a  real  improvement  brought  about.  In  1832  Pope  Greg¬ 
ory  addressed  an  appeal  to  the  King  of  Portugal  to  fill 
the  vacant  sees  under  his  patronage,  or  to  renounce  the 
Padroado.  Towards  the  end  of  1833  the  Congregation 
of  the  Propaganda  empowered  the  Apostolic  Vicar  of 
Malabar  and  the  Superior  of  the  Mission  of  Pondicherry 
to  exercise  jurisdiction  over  the  territory  east  of  the 
Ghats,  between  the  Malabar  and  Coromandel  Coasts.  In 
1834  the  Apostolic  Vicariates  of  Bengal  and  Madras  were 
established.  Furthermore  in  1834  Ceylon  was  created 
a  vicariate  apostolic  and  withdrawn  from  the  control  of 
Cochin.  Consistent  with  their  traditions  of  the  two  pre¬ 
vious  centuries  the  clergy  of  Goa  rose  up  in  formal  pro¬ 
test.  Independent  of  any  permission  of  the  Pope,  the 
Court  of  Lisbon  elevated  an  Augustinian  to  the  dignity 
of  Bishop  of  Mylapore  and  appointed  a  Benedictine  to 
the  Archbishopric  of  Goa. 

Hopes  for  the  Future. — Simultaneous  with  these  turbu¬ 
lent  conditions  in  India  the  state  of  the  Church  in  Europe 
began  to  improve.  A  new  period  of  religious  fervor  was 
inaugurated.  Once  more  the  old  Religious  Orders  began 
to  flourish  and  new  bands  of  missionaries  were  organized. 
Fresh  expeditions  set  out  for  India  and  strenuous  efforts 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1700-1886 


127 


were  made  to  reinstate  the  spirit  of  old.  In  1836  the 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Madura  was  established  and  en¬ 
trusted  to  the  Jesuits  in  the  face  of  strong  opposition  oil 
the  part  of  the  Portuguese  clergy. 

Goa  s  J urisdiction  A  gain  Limited. — But  Pope  Gregory 
was  bent  upon  putting  an  end  to  Portugal’s  tyranny. 
Therefore  on  April  24,  1838,  he  issued  the  famous  Brief 
Multa  praeclare,  provisionally  withdrawing  the  Goanese 
jurisdiction  from  the  three  suffragan  Sees  of  Cochin, 
Cranganore  and  Mylapore,  and  assigning  them  to  the 
three  nearest  vicars  apostolic. 

Goanese  Schism. — By  virtue  of  this  measure  the  Dio¬ 
cese  of  Cranganore  and  a  part  of  the  Diocese  of  Cochin 
bowed  submission  to  the  Apostolic  Vicar  of  Malabar.  The 
Archdiocese  of  Goa  and  the  Diocese  of  Mylapore,  how¬ 
ever,  continued  in  their  antagonism  towards  Rome.  Im¬ 
mediately  an  attempt  was  made  to  prove  the  document 
as  invalid  or  at  least  spurious.  Priests  were  threatened 
with  suspension,  and,  in  cases  where  they  had  possessions 
in  Goa,  with  confiscation  of  their  property,  if  they  bowed 
to  the  ordinance  of  the  Pope. 

Portugal's  Hypocrisy. — After  the  death  of  the  Bene¬ 
dictine  Carvalho  in  1839,  who  at  the  instigation  of  Portu¬ 
gal  had  usurped  the  jurisdiction  of  Goa,  there  was  no 
longer  a  bishop  in  India  who  represented  the  Schism. 
Fearing  that  in  this  way  her  cause  would  be  defeated, 
Portugal  offered  to  be  reconciled  to  Rome,  and  proposed 
the  appointment  of  Joseph  de  Torres,  a  man  who  had 
distinguished  himself  by  his  obedience  to  the  Holy  See, 
to  the  Archbishopric  of  Goa.  In  the  hope  that  the  Schism 
in  India  would  thereby  cease,  Rome  granted  the  request 
of  Portugal.  In  the  endeavor,  however,  to  avoid  wounding 
the  feelings  of  Portugal,  the  Pope  drew  up  the  decrees 
according  to  the  ancient  form,  employed  when  the  patron¬ 
age  was  still  recognized.  The  result  was,  that  Torres, 
despite  his  promise  of  strict  obedience,  maliciously  con¬ 
cluded  that  he  was  given  unlimited  jurisdiction  in  India. 


128 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


After  repeated  attempts  Pius  IX.  finally  succeeded  in 
having  this  unworthy  prelate  deposed. 

Schism  Rages  in  Bombay. — While  the  clergy  persisted 
in  their  antagonism  the  anti-papal  movement  raged  with 
unabated  energy  in  Bombay.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
greater  part  of  the  Catholic  element  in  this  vicariate  was 
composed  of  Portuguese  immigrants,  the  Schism  had 
found  here  a  hearty  welcome.  When  Joseph  de  Torres 
was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Goa  he  disembarked  at 
Bombay  on  his  way  to  his  appointed  see  and  allying  him¬ 
self  with  the  schismatics,  administered  confirmation  and 
holy  orders,  and  made  a  pastoral  visitation,  and  all  this 
despite  the  protests  of  the  true  Ordinary. 

“The  Hammer  of  Schismatics.” — This  chaotic  state  of 
affairs  was  at  its  height  when  Bt.  Rev.  Anastasius  Hart¬ 
mann,  O.  M.  Cap.,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Patna,  was  made 
Administrator  of  Bombay.  Anastasius  Hartmann  was 
born  in  Switzerland  in  1803.  In  1821  he  entered  the 
Capuchin  Order.  In  1843  his  ardent  desire  of  laboring 
in  the  foreign  missions  was  realized,  and  he  was  appointed 
to  the  Capuchin  missions  of  Agra.  He  was  elevated  to 
the  dignity  of  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Patna  in  1846.  Upon 
his  appointment  as  Administrator  of  Bombay  (1849), 
Bishop  Hartmann  hurried  into  the  unhappy  vicariate  with 
a  determination  to  win  despite  its  cost.  In  order  to  keep 
those  who  had  remained  faithful  accurately  informed,  and 
to  expose  the  calumnies  that  were  being  disseminated 
against  the  Holy  See,  he  founded  in  1850  the  Bombay 
Catholic  Examiner ,  (now  known  as  The  Examiner) ,  the 
chief  Catholic  organ  of  India.12 

India’s  Hierarchy  Makes  an  Appeal . — Bishop  Hart¬ 
mann  struck  upon  a  new  mode  of  putting  an  end  to  the  dis¬ 
cord.  In  1851  he  requested  all  the  vicars  apostolic  of 
India  and  Ceylon  to  join  with  him  in  an  appeal  to  the 
British  Government,  exhorting  it  to  wipe  out  the  system 
of  double  jurisdiction  in  its  Asiatic  possessions.  The 

12  Ibidem,  p.  168. 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1700-1886 


129 


Pope  supported  this  action,  and  commissioned  Cardinal 
Wiseman  to  direct  it  in  England.  But  it  seems  that  the 
request  of  the  bishops  was  left  unheeded. 

New  Trouble  Arises. — Due  to  the  vacancy  of  the  See  of 
Goa  since  the  deposition  of  de  Torres,  and  the  simoniacal 
efforts  of  the  vicar  capitular  to  succeed  him,  the  Schism 
lost  many  of  its  adherents.  In  order  to  again  strengthen 
its  position,  Portugal  directed  Joseph  de  Matta,  Bishop 
of  Macao,  to  confer  Orders  in  Ceylon,  Malabar  and  Bom- 
bay. 

An  Appeal  to  Rome . — In  the  midst  of  these  disastrous 
circumstances,  Bishop  Hartmann,  having  at  one  period 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  schismatics,  again  induced  the 
vicars  apostolic  to  join  with  him  in  another  appeal,  this 
time  to  the  Pope,  asking  him  to  take  new  steps  to  put 
an  end  to  the  Schism.  This  brought  forth  the  celebrated 
Bull,  Probe  Nostis,  of  Pius  IX.  in  1853,  threatening  the 
leaders  of  the  Schism  with  suspension  a  divinis,  and  ex- 
communication,  if  they  would  not  repent  within  two 
months.  But,  as  in  the  past,  so  was  this  action  of  the 
Pope  without  avail.  In  1858  Bishop  Hartmann  was  com¬ 
missioned  by  the  Sacred  Congregation  to  take  over  the 
direction  of  all  the  missions  of  the  Capuchin  Order,  and 
to  assume  the  rectorship  of  the  St.  Fidelis7  College  in 
Pome,  whose  purpose  it  is  to  educate  missionaries  for  the 
mission  field.  When  the  zealous  bishop  laid  down  his  juris¬ 
diction  in  India  he  did  so  with  the  conviction  that  his 
influence  had  done  much  toward  sounding  the  death  knell 
of  the  Schism.  In  1860  he  returned  to  India  as  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  Patna  to  take  charge  of  what  is  now  the 
Diocese  of  Allahabad,  where  he  died  in  1866. 

The  Schism  Is  Ended. — In  1857  Pius  IX.  had  con¬ 
cluded  a  Concordat  with  Portugal,  which  outlined  the 
boundaries  of  Cranganore,  Cochin,  Mylapore  and  Macao. 
Although  the  Portuguese  failed  to  keep  their  part  of  the 
agreement,  the  mission  field  of  India  in  1860  presented 
a  more  favorable  outlook.  In  1862  the  new  Archbishop 


130 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


of  Goa,  John  Chrysostom  d’Amorin-Pessoa,  notwithstand¬ 
ing  the  opposition  he  met  from  the  Government  of  Portu¬ 
gal,  scored  decided  victories  over  the  Schism.  Owing  to 
his  appointment  as  Apostolic  Delegate,  he  was  in  a  posi¬ 
tion  to  exercise  his  influence  also  over  the  Goanese  outside 
Portuguese  territory.  This  lasted  till  1885,  when  Leo 
XIII.  sent  a  special  envoy  to  India  to  put  an  end  to  the 
difficulties. 

Neiv  Bodies  of  Missionaries. — In  1834  the  Jesuits  re¬ 
turned  to  India;  the  Salesians  began  their  activity  here 
in  1845  and  were  followed  by  the  Oblates  of  Mary  Im¬ 
maculate  in  1847.  In  1853  the  Holy  Cross  Fathers  came; 
in  1855  the  Priests  of  the  Society  for  the  Foreign  Mis¬ 
sions  of  Milan  entered  the  field  and  later  the  Sylves- 
trine  Fathers.  Finally,  in  1875,  the  Benedictines  took 
over  Dacca  upon  the  departure  of  the  Holy  Cross 
F  athers. 

Missions  of  Northern  India. — The  missions  in  Northern 
India  in  charge  of  the  Capuchins,  were,  with  the  excep¬ 
tion  of  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Bombay,  spared  from 
the  disastrous  Portuguese  Schism.  But,  owing  to  the  fad 
that  this  part  of  India  had  been  the  stronghold  of  Mos- 
lemism,  and  at  the  same  time  felt  most  keenly  the  scarcity 
of  priests,  serious  difficulties  and  many  hardships  were 
suffered  in  order  to  effect  conversions. 

Begum  Sumroo  of  Sardhana. — One  of  the  brightest  ex¬ 
ceptions  was  the  conversion  of  the  Begum  or  Queen  Sum¬ 
roo  of  Sardhana.  This  remarkable  woman,  who  ruled  over 
the  Principality  of  the  Sardhana,  was  converted  from 
Mohammedanism  by  a  Carmelite  Father  at  Agra  in  1781. 
In  order  to  prove  her  gratitude  the  Begum  made  many 
endowments  to  the  Church,  among  which  was  the  sum  of 
100,000  rupees  for  the  maintenance  of  a  seminary  for 
training  a  native  clergy.  Up  to  the  present  day,  however, 
the  establishment  of  this  seminary  has  not  proved  to  be 
a  successful  venture.  Attempts  were  made  in  1843,  1870, 
1881,  1900,  and  the  last  one  in  1921  to  fulfill  the  wish 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1700-18 86 


131 


\ 


of  the  Begum.  Whether  the  latest  one  will  he  a  success 
remains  to  he  seen.13 

The  Punjab. — Owing  to  its  position  in  the  northwestern 
extremity  of  India,  the  territory  called  the  Punjab  has  his¬ 
torically  been  one  of  great  importance  since  the  invasion 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  The  short-lived  missions  of  La¬ 
hore  and  Delhi,  established  by  the  Jesuits  in  the  seven¬ 
teenth  century,  were  situated  in  this  region.  The  Punjab 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  Sikhs  from  1764  until  1849  when 
it  was  taken  by  the  British.  In  consequence  of  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  English  rule,  there  followed  a  large  influx  of 
European  and  native  Catholics,  mostly  soldiers.  In  1850 
their  number  amounted  to  8,000  under  the  care  of  the 
Capuchins,  who,  after  their  appointment  to  the  Punjab  in 
1807,  have  had  charge  of  the  whole  of  Northern  India  till 
recently.  Till  1845  this  large  territory  formed  but  one 
vicariate  apostolic,  namely  that  of  Tibet-Hindostan. 

Mission  of  Bettiah. — From  1769  to  1848  the  baptisms 
in  this  mission,  in  charge  of  the  Italian  Capuchins,  num¬ 
bered  805.  In  1840  Churee,  a  colony  of  exiled  Nepalese, 
had  357,  and  in  1867  the  station  of  Bettiah,  1,201  Catho¬ 
lics,  which  number  had  increased  to  1,800  by  1889.  In 
1883  a  third  station -was  opened  in  Bettiah  at  Chaknee, 
thirty  miles  from  Churee,  in  order  to  provide  a  home  for 
famine  stricken  orphans  sent  to  the  mission  by  the  Indian 
Government. 

Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Tibet-Hindostan. — Owing  to  the 
great  dearth  of  priests  in  the  Vicariate  of  Tibet-Hindostan, 
the  entire  field,  consisting  of  Agra,  Patna,  Bettiah,  Luck¬ 
now  and  Sardhana,  was  administered  for  many  years  at 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  by  only  six  priests. 
As  a  result  conversions  were  comparatively  few.  In  spite 
of  the  heroic  efforts  of  the  first  Ordinary  of  the  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of  Tibet-Hindostan,  little  progress  was  made 
during  the  period  extending  from  1820  to  1842.  A  change 

13 II  Massaja,  Bolletino  delle  Missioni  Estere  dei  Minori  Cap- 
puccini,  Roma,  Vol.  IX,  1922^  pp.  6-9. 


132 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


came  with  the  succession  of  Mgr.  Borghi  in  1841.  One 
of  the  first  steps  this  prelate  made  towards  the  advance¬ 
ment  of  the  mission  was  to  request  the  Holy  See  to  divide 
the  vicariate.  By  a  dismemberment,  therefore,  in  1845, 
there  were  founded  the  two  Vicariates  Apostolic  of  Patna 
and  Agra;  the  name  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Tibet-Hindo- 
stan  was  completely  suppressed.  The  new  Vicariate  Apos¬ 
tolic  of  Lhasa  was  given  to  the  Society  for  Foreign  Mis¬ 
sions  of  Paris  in  1846.  Under  the  able  direction  of 
Bishops  Borghi,  Carli  and  Ignatius  Persico,  a  new  period 
was  inaugurated.  Special  attention  was  given  to  the 
hitherto  neglected  Europeans  among  whom  were  about 
20,000  Catholics.  In  less  than  twenty  years,  therefore, 
the  number  of  the  faithful  had  increased  fourfold.  By 
1856  the  number  of  priests  had  increased  to  twenty-seven. 
Two  colleges  and  numerous  Catholic  schools  had  been 
founded.  Credit  must  also  be  given  to  the  Capuchins  for 
acting  as  chaplains  to  the  Irish  soldiers  who  formed  about 
two-thirds  of  the  European  Army  of  Occupation.  In 
1889  we  count  in  the  two  Vicariates  of  Agra  and  Patna 
23,800  Catholics  with  62  priests,  and  in  1885  in  the  three 
Vicariates  of  Agra,  Patna  and  the  Punjab,  24,300  Cath¬ 
olics  with  68  priests. 

Another  great  misfortune  befell  this  mission  in  the 
tnutiny  of  the  Sepoys  against  the  English  Government 
(1857),  when  practically  all  the  churches,  schools,  orphan¬ 
ages  and  existing  institutions  which  had  been  established 
during  the  previous  years  were  razed  to  the  ground.  This 
disaster,  however,  elicited  the  sympathy  of  Europe  and 
generous  contributions  were  received  for  the  restoration 
of  the  stricken  field. 

Bombay. — On  the  Island  of  Bombay,  under  the  care  of 
the  Carmelites,  conditions  had  improved  following  the 
conclusion  of  the  Portuguese  Schism.  At  the  time  of  its 
division  into  the  two  Vicariates  Apostolic  (1854),  the 
one  of  Northern  Bombay  entrusted  to  the  Capuchins  in 
the  same  year,  and  the  other  of  Southern  Bombay  or  Poona 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1700-1886 


139 


in  charge  of  the  Jesuits,  the  entire  Province  numbered 
70,000  Catholics.  In  the  following  years  many  impor¬ 
tant  institutions  were  founded,  among  which  were  St. 
Mary’s  High  School  and  St.  Xavier’s  College.  On  the 
renunciation  of  the  northern  mission  by  the  Capuchins  in 
1858  this  portion  also  went  into  the  hands  of  the  Jesuits, 
the  two  vicariates,  however,  remaining  distinct. 

Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Verapoly  or  Malabar. — The  Vi¬ 
cariate  Apostolic  of  Verapoly  or  Malabar,  in  charge  of 
the  Carmelites  since  1701,  was  made  smaller  by  the  sep¬ 
aration  of  Kanara  or  Mangalore  (1845).  Though  raised 
to  a  vicariate  apostolic,  Mangalore  still  remained  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  Verapoly  till  1853  when  it  was  formed 
into  an  independent  vicariate.  The  appointment  of  Mgr. 
Bernardino  (1859)  as  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Verapoly  marked 
the  beginning  of  a  new  era  for  this  vicariate.  Besides 
establishing  numerous  parishes  and  schools,  this  zealous 
prelate  succeeded  in  founding  various  monasteries  for 
Carmelite  Tertiary  Fathers,  belonging  for  the  greater 
part  to  the  Syrian  Bite.  These  monks  soon  became  the 
mainstay  of  Verapoly,  and  were  the  source  of  untold 
blessings.  The  good  example  given  by  these  holy  religious 
exercised  a  wholesome  influence  upon  the  secular  clergy, 
which  only  too  often  had  proved  itself  neglectful  of  its 
duties.  A  like  congregation  was  also  founded  for  women. 
The  members  of  this  organization  are  called  Tertiary  Car¬ 
melite  Sisters.  Their  foundress  was  the  famous  Discalced 
Carmelite  Sister,  Mary  Theresa  Veronica  of  Jesus.  In 
1874  a  movement  was  set  on  foot  for  the  training  of  a 
better  secular  clergy  by  the  opening  of  a  seminary  at 
Manhamel.  In  1885  this  vicariate  counted  275,600  Cath¬ 
olics  with  429  priests. 

Quilon. — The  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Quilon  was  formed 
in  1853  by  a  separation  from  Verapoly,  and  was  retained 
by  the  Carmelites  who  still  have  charge  of  it.  This  vicar¬ 
iate  made  notable  progress  especially  under  its  second 
Vicar  Apostolic,  Bt.  Bev.  Mary  Garrelon  (1864-1873). 


134 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


It  was  due  to  the  influence  which  this  prelate  enjoyed 
with  the  English  Government  and  the  Indian  rajah  that 
Catholics  received  equal  civil  rights  with  the  natives.  In 
1885  there  were  in  this  vicariate  97,496  Catholics  with 
55  priests. 

Schism. — Besides  the  frequent  dissensions  occasioned 
by  the  Portuguese  Schism,  and  the  schism  set  on  foot  by 
Mar  Bocco  in  1861,  serious  havoc  was  wrought  upon  the 
Church  by  the  schism  begun  by  Bishop  Melius  who  was 
sent  to  the  Malabar  parishes  by  the  Patriarch  of  Chaldea, 
Audo.  With  the  aid  of  the  British  authorities  this  schism 
was  stifled  to  a  great  extent,  although  at  the  present  time 
several  thousand  adherents  can  be  found  on  the  Malabar 
Coast. 

Madura. — As  stated  before,  the  Jesuits  upon  their  re¬ 
turn  to  Madura  (1846)  had  much  to  suffer  from  the  Por¬ 
tuguese  Schism.  The  successes  of  the  Jesuits  in  this 
mission  before  their  suppression  inspired  the  new  mission¬ 
aries  to  strongly  contest  the  action  of  the  schismatics. 
As  a  result,  thousands  of  schismatics  were  converted  to 
Catholic  Unity  even  before  the  Concordat  with  Portugal 
of  1857  had  been  drawn  up.  In  1846  the  Madura  mis¬ 
sion  was  made  a  vicariate  apostolic  with  its  Episcopal  See 
at  Trichinopoly.  In  1853  this  large  and  extensive  vicar¬ 
iate  was  divided  into  the  Districts  of  Trichinopoly,  Ma¬ 
dura  and  Palamcottah-Tinnevelly,  remaining,  however, 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  one  vicar  apostolic.  About  the 
year  1870  the  Catholic  population  of  the  vicariate  was 
considerably  increased  by  the  numerous  conversions  of 
pagans  on  the  coast  of  Achanars,  in  the  southern  district 
of  Tinnevelly,  owing  to  the  kindness  shown  by  the  mis¬ 
sionaries  to  the  victims  of  the  great  famine  of  that  time. 
The  Catholic  population  of  this  vicariate  in  1885  amounted 
to  176,169  with  78  priests. 

Madras. — The  Italian  Capuchins  who  replaced  the 
Erench  Capuchins  in  1792  labored  in  the  mission  of 
Madras  till  1832,  when  it  was  formed  into  a  vicariate 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1700-1886 


135 


apostolic  and  entrusted  to  Irish  secular  priests.  At  this 
time  the  vicariate  included  the  present  Dioceses  of  Hyder¬ 
abad,  Vizagapatam  and  Nagpur.  Owing  to  the  Portu¬ 
guese  Schism  the  progress  of  this  field  was  one  fraught 
with  many  difficulties.  When  in  1838  Bt.  Bev.  Patrick 
Carew  was  consecrated  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Madras  he 
found  only  three  priests  in  the  mission  who  acknowledged 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Holy  See.  In  the  same  year  the 
vicariate  apostolic  was  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  the  See 
of  San  Thome.  Due  to  the  undaunted  zeal  of  Bishop 
Carew  and  the  long  periods  of  office  held  by  his  successors 
the  outlook  of  Madras  became  more  promising.  In  1849 
the  vicariate  apostolic  was  reduced  in  size  by  the  erection 
of  the  Vicariate  of  Vizagapatam  and  in  1851  of  that  of 
Hyderabad.  The  number  of  the  faithful  was  greatly  aug¬ 
mented  by  the  reorganization  of  6,000  Telugu-Christians 
from  the  Sudra  caste.  Their  ancestors  had  been  converted 
by  the  early  Jesuits.  Another  conversion  en  masse  took 
place  in  the  famine  of  1878  when  3,176  victims,  touched 
by  the  charity  of  the  missionaries,  entered  the  Church.  In 
1885  this  vicariate  had  56,548  Catholics  and  58  priests. 

The  Carnatic  Mission  and  the  Society  for  Foreign 
Missions  of  Paris. — The  Priests  of  the  Society  for 
Foreign  Missions  of  Paris  began  their  activity  in 
India  in  1776,  when  they  took  charge  of  Pondicherry. 
Within  the  succeeding  thirty  years  these  priests  had  grad¬ 
ually  taken  over  the  large  territory  which  at  present  forms 
the  Dioceses  of  Kumbakonam,  Coimbatore,  Mysore  and  the 
larger  part  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Pondicherry.  As  a  result 
of  the  French  Revolution  the  number  of  priests  of  this 
Society  in  India  was  at  first  so  small  that  many  parishes 
enjoyed  the  visit  of  a  priest  only  once  in  two  years.  In 
1840  Mysore  was  attended  to  by  only  one  priest.  But 
that  the  blessing  of  God  accompanied  the  work  of  these 
brave  missionaries  eventually  became  evident.  In  1844 
Mgr.  Bonnand  held  a  Mission  Synod  to  devise  ways  and 
means  of  providing  the  native  priests  with  a  more  thor- 


136 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


ougli  training,  and  to  prepare  for  the  division  of  the  vi¬ 
cariate  (1850)  into  the  three  Vicariates  of  Pondicherry, 
Coimbatore  and  Mysore. 

Pondicherry ,  C oimbatore  and  Mysore . — At  the  time  of 
the  establishment  of  these  three  vicariates  (1850)  Pondi¬ 
cherry  counted  83,000  Catholics  with  twenty-four  priests. 
Mysore  13,000  Catholics,  and  Coimbatore  16,000  Cath¬ 
olics  with  four  priests.  Due  to  the  protection  which  the 
missionaries  offered  the  oppressed  pariahs  against  the 
higher  castes  and  to  the  famine  of  1878,  numerous  con¬ 
versions  were  made,  especially  in  Pondicherry.  In  order 
to  attend  to  this  ever  increasing  number  of  converts  native 
priests  had  to  be  recruited  into  the  ranks  of  the  mission¬ 
aries.  This,  however,  proved  to  be  a  source  of  difficulty 
owing  to  the  fact  that  these  priests  had  been  pariahs,  or 
members  of  a  lower  caste,  and,  therefore,  were  held  in 
contempt  by  the  higher  castes  and  even  by  the  pariahs 
themselves.  Besides  the  establishment  of  three  semina¬ 
ries,  the  Society  for  the  Foreign  Missions  of  Paris  opened 
many  elementary  and  high  schools  throughout  the  three 
vicariates.  Their  efforts  in  this  respect  met  with  splendid 
success,  especially  in  Mysore,  where  a  formidable  task 
confronted  them  in  preserving  the  youths  from  the  in¬ 
fluence  of  heresy.  In  this  endeavor  they  were  assisted  to 
a  great  extent  by  the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd. 
Special  praise  is  also  due  the  native  Sisters  of  St.  Anne 
who,  towards  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century,  founded 
many  schools,  orphanages  and  other  charitable  institutions 
in  the  territory  of  the  former  Carnatic  missions.14  By 
the  year  1885  the  number  of  Catholics  in  Pondicherry  had 
increased  to  202,691  with  105  priests,  in  Mysore  to  27,175 
with  39  priests,  and  in  Coimbatore  to  24,027  with  27 
priests. 

Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Pondicherry. — In  1828  the  old 
Capuchin  mission  of  Pondicherry,  founded  in  1671,  was 

14  Friedrich  Schwager,  Die  katholische  H eidenmission  der  Ge gen¬ 
ie  art,  Steyl,  1903,  p.  373  If. 


1 


138 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


raised  to  a  prefecture  apostolic  comprising  the  French 
colonies  of  Pondicherry,  Chandernagore,  Mahe  and  Yan- 
aon.  In  1880  its  population  amounted  to  271,000.  In 
1882  the  Capuchins  gave  up  the  prefecture  and  it  was 
taken  over  by  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  In 
1886  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Pondicherry  was  sup¬ 
pressed.  The  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Pondicherry,  erected 
in  1815  and  in  charge  of  the  Priests  of  the  Society  for 
Foreign  Missions  of  Paris,  had  different  territory;  they 
were  two  distinct  ecclesiastical  provinces. 

Bengal. — At  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  con¬ 
dition  of  the  mission  of  Bengal  was  not  at  all  promising. 
The  Augustinians  were  active  only  in  Calcutta  and  Ban- 
del,  and  the  Capuchins  at  Chandernagore,  where  they  had 
settled  in  1706.  The  Capuchins  retired  from  this  field 
in  1882.  Elsewhere  Catholics  were  attended  by  the  Goan¬ 
ese  clergy.  The  25,000  Catholics  and  eleven  parishes  had 
also  become  an  easy  prey  to  Protestant  propaganda.  Up 
to  1842  no  school  existed  in  Bengal.  In  1834  this  mis¬ 
sion  was  made  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Bengal  and  en¬ 
trusted  to  the  English  Jesuits.  By  a  separation  in  1850 
the  eastern  part  of  the  vicariate  was  formed  into  the  Vi¬ 
cariate  Apostolic  of  Eastern  Bengal.  Central  Bengal  was 
taken  in  hand  by  the  missionaries  of  Milan  in  1855,  and 
Western  Bengal  or  Calcutta  by  the  Jesuits  of  Belgium  in 
1859.  In  1870  Central  Bengal  was  made  a  prefecture 
apostolic,  when  the  Provinces  of  Bhutan  and  Assam,  and 
also  the  districts  of  Dina j pur,  Cooch,  Bhar,  Bangpur  and 
Faridpur  were  added  to  the  original  missions  of  1855. 
In  1886  this  prefecture  became  the  Diocese  of  Krishnagar. 
Some  of  the  most  flourishing  centers  of  Christianity  in 
Bengal  were  Calcutta  where  the  Jesuits  founded  the  fa¬ 
mous  St.  Francis  Xavier’s  College  (1859),  the  Province  of 
the  Sonderbunds  where,  since  the  year  1868,  entire  vil¬ 
lages  were  converted  to  the  true  Faith,  and  especially 
Chota  Nagpur,  which  is  said  to  be  the  most  successful 
mission  of  British  India.  The  first  Catholic  missionary 
to  preach  the  Gospel  in  the  latter  region  was  Fr.  Stock- 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1700-1886 


139 


mann.  Besides  the  Jesuits,  the  Priests  of  the  Society  for 
Foreign  Missions  of  Milan  have  been  active  in  Central 
Bengal  since  1855.  The  assistance  of  Irish  missionaries 
from  Dublin  and  Cork  was  also  elicited  in  the  interest  of 
this  mission.  In  1880  Calcutta  counted  14,100  Catholics 
and  48  priests,  Dacca  11,300  Catholics  with  17  priests 
and  Central  Bengal  1,200  with  9  priests. 

Travancore  and  Cochin. — The  thickly  populated  domin¬ 
ion  of  Travancore  and  the  Rajahship  of  Cochin  possessed 
at  one  time  a  larger  number  of  Catholics  than  any  other 
dominion  in  India.  Here  Christendom  has  its  oldest  par¬ 
ishes,  namely,  those  of  the  Syro-Malabar  Christians,  the 
foundation  of  which  dates  back,  perhaps,  to  apostolic 
times.  It  is  also  here  that  the  missionaries  have  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  setting  up  the  Cross  of  Christ  in  the  midst  of 
one  of  the  greatest  strongholds  of  Brahmanism. 

From  the  seventeenth  to  the  eighteenth  century  a  small 
band  of  Carmelite  Fathers  labored  alone  on  the  entire 
western  coast  of  India,  including  the  Vicariate  of  Bombay 
in  the  north,  and  that  of  Verapoly  in  the  south.  The 
favor  which  the  missionaries  enjoyed  with  the  rajahs  of 
Cochin  influenced  the  Dutch  authorities  to  give  them  their 
support.  Up  to  the  present  day  the  missionaries  enjoy 
the  same  prestige  with  the  Brahmans. 

Mangalore. — In  February  1845,  in  answer  to  repeated 
petitions,  the  mission  field  of  Kanara  or  Mangalore  was 
erected  into  a  new  vicariate  with  jurisdiction  extending 
also  over  that  part  of  the  Malabar  as  far  as  the  Ponani 
River.  The  small  number  of  Carmelites  in  charge  of  the 
northern  part  of  the  field  was  not  sufficient  to  minister 
to  the  large  territory.  The  vicariate  was  therefore  trans¬ 
ferred  to  the  Venetian  Province  of  Jesuits  in  1878.  These 
missionaries  found  their  field  of  labor  in  a  deplorable  con¬ 
dition.  Many  of  the  Catholics  proved  to  be  ignorant  of 
their  religion  and  addicted  to  vices  of  all  kinds.  The 
press,  the  schools  and  orphanages  were  in  the  hands  of 
Protestants  who  had  been  active  here  since  1834.  With 
the  assistance  of  their  German  brethren  in  Bombay  the 


140 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


Jesuits  set  about  their  difficult  task.  The  seminary  for 
priests  which  had  been  closed  by  the  Carmelites  was  re¬ 
opened  and  schools  were  erected.  The  Catholics  of  this 
vicariate  in  1880  numbered  84,000  with  72  priests. 

Goa. — Due  to  the  frequent  dissensions  and  quarrels 
arising  from  the  Portuguese  Schism  this  once  so  illus¬ 
trious  see  sank  into  a  state  which  is  almost  inconceivable. 
Rt,.  Rev.  Anastasius  Hartmann,  O.  M.  Cap.,  in  a  series  of 
articles  written  shortly  after  his  arrival  in  Bombay  in 
1849,  says  that  as  punishment  for  the  Schism,  “Goa,  the 
Emporium  of  the  Orient,  the  second  Constantinople  in 
religious  affairs,  once  so  proud,  so  magnificent,  is  now  but 
a  heap  of  ruins.’7  15 

Ceylon. — Until  1836  Ceylon  was  a  part  of  the  Diocese 
of  Cochin.  In  this  year  it  was  made  a  vicariate  apostolic. 
Hot  long  after  this  arrangement,  a  petition  was  addressed 
to  Rome,  with  the  request  to  provide  the  mission  with 
European  priests.  The  Goanese  priests,  it  was  claimed, 
were  too  few  in  number  and  lacked  efficiency  in  many 
regards.  In  answer  to  this  appeal,  Propaganda  (1840) 
sent  Fr.  Bettachini  of  the  Oratory  of  St.  Philip  to  Ceylon. 
In  1847  the  Vicariate  of  Ceylon  was  divided  into  the  two 
Vicariates  of  Jaffna  and  Colombo.  Er.  Bettachini  was 
appointed  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Jaffna,  and  succeeded  in 
bringing  a  number  of  Oblate  Fathers  together  with  some 
secular  priests  from  Europe  to  Jaffna  (1847). 

Jaffna. — The  new  missionaries  in  Jaffna  had  to  struggle 
bravely  against  the  jealousy  of  the  Goanese  priests.  But 
they  soon  gained  the  confidence  of  the  people  and  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  effecting  many  conversions.  The  work  of  the 
zealous  men  also  extended  to  the  Island  of  Mantotte, 
where  many  of  the  schismatics  were  restored  to  unity.  In 
1864  the  Society  of  St.  Joseph  was  founded  for  the  train¬ 
ing  of  native  lay  Brothers,  and  the  Society  of  St.  Peter 
for  rtative  Sisters.  Both  Societies  devoted  themselves  to 
the  education  of  the  native  youth. 

16  Adrian  Imhof  und  Adelhelm  Jann,  op.  c.,  p.  154. 


MODERN  MISSIONS:  1700-1886 


141 


Colombo. — The  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Colombo,  upon 
its  separation  from  the  Vicariate  of  Ceylon,  was  entrusted 
to  the  Sylvestrine  Congregation,  a  branch  of  the  Benedic¬ 
tine  Order.  Similar  to  the  Oblate  Fathers  of  Jaffna, 
these  missionaries  labored  incessantly  for  the  revival  of 
the  Faith.  Their  chief  weapons  were  the  press  and  edu¬ 
cation.  The  destruction  of  their  coffee  plantation  de¬ 
prived  them  of  their  main  support.  The  result  was  that 
they  were  no  longer  able  to  look  after  the  entire  field,  so 
that  in  1883  the  Central  and  Uva  Provinces  were  sep¬ 
arated  from  the  vicariate  and  made  to  constitute  the  Vi¬ 
cariate  Apostolic  of  Kandy.  This  portion  remained  in 
the  hands  of  the  Sylvestrine  Fathers,  while  the  other  part 
of  Colombo  was  given  to  the  Oblate  Fathers.  In  1851 
the  number  of  Catholics  in  the  two  vicariates  amounted 
to  125,320,  in  1871  to  173,269  and  in  1881  to  199, 270.16 

Burma. — The  year  1832  marks  the  death  of  the  last 
Barnabite  Father  in  the  Vicariate  of  Ava  and  Pegu, 
which  had  been  entrusted  to  his  Order  in  1721.  In  the 
place  of  the  Barnabites  the  Piarists  had  charge  of  Burma 
from  1830  to  1841  and  the  Oblate  Fathers  of  Turin  from 
1841  to  1854.  In  1857  the  Foreign  Mission  Seminary 
of  Paris  took  over  Burma.  South  Burma  and  the  coast 
land  of  Tenasserim  came  under  British  rule  about  six 
decades  before  North  Burma  and  this  accounts  for  the 
fact  that  North  Burma  possesses  only  about  one-fifth  the 
Catholic  population  of  the  entire  Kingdom.  The  greater 
number  of  conversions  to  Christianity  has  taken  place 
among  the  Karen  tribes.  The  Vicariates  of  Northern, 
Southern  and  Eastern  Burma  were  formed  in  1870  by 
the  division  of  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Ava  and  Pegu. 
The  Eastern  Burma  mission  was  entrusted  in  1866  to 
the  Society  for  Foreign  Missions  of  Milan.  In  1851 
Burma  had  3,000  Catholics,  in  1871,  8,500  and  in  1881, 
21,689.17 

19  Die  katholischen  Missi-onen,  Freiburg,  Vol.  XL,  1911-12,  p.  210. 

11  Ibidem. 


CHAPTER  IV 


ADVANCE  SINCE  THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE 

HIERARCHY 

% 

Early  Endeavors . — In  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century  when  Catholic  missionaries  began  work  in  India, 
they  found  that  the  Church  had  fallen  into  a  critical  state. 
Aided  by  the  royal  munificence  of  the  kings  of  Portugal, 
who  were  the  great  protectors  of  the  new  enterprise,  these 
messengers  of  the  Gospel  made  progress  for  well-nigh 
two  hundred  years.  But  the  persecutions,  the  internal 
troubles,  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  and  the  Portu¬ 
guese  Schism,  spoken  of  in  the  foregoing  chapter  checked 
this  development.  Towards  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  cen¬ 
tury,  however,  due  to  the  provisions  made  by  Rome,  a 
brighter  era  dawned  for  the  Catholic  Church  in  India. 

Romes  Policy. — The  new  policy  was  already  inaugu¬ 
rated  by  Pope  Pius  IX.,  but  death  called  him  before  his 
plans  could  be  fully  realized.  Pope  Leo  XIII.  fell  in  line 
with  the  methods  of  his  predecessor.  To  further  the  work 
of  Pius,  Leo  established  a  Papal  Delegation  for  India  in 
1884,  and  sent  thither  Mgr.  Agliardi  as  first  incumbent. 
Affairs  took  such  a  turn  that  two  years  later  the  Holy 
Father  could  take  the  final  step  in  the  establishment  of 
the  Hierarchy.  On  Sept.  1,  1886,  he  issued  his  famous 
Bull  Humanae  Salutis  Auctor ,  which  joined  the  divided 
factions  into  a  harmonious  unity  and  placed  the  Catholic 
Church  in  India  on  a  firm  and  solid  basis.  The  papal 
delegate  was  commissioned  to  carry  out  the  dispositions 
of  the  Bull  and  settle  the  minor  points  connected  with  the 
Portuguese  Schism. 


142 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  HIERARCHY  143 


The  Hierarchy  a  Fact . — Although  the  new  regulations 
for  the  Church  in  India  removed  the  chief  obstacles  on 
the  path  to  success,  there  was  still  some  small  opposition 
from  the  camp  of  those  favoring  the  Portuguese  patron¬ 
age.  These  difficulties,  however,  were  peacefully  settled 
in  1887  by  the  decree  Post  Initam ,  which  gave  the  Hierar¬ 
chy  a  somewhat  different  organization.  This  decree  di¬ 
vided  India  into  the  Archbishoprics  of  Goa,  Verapoly, 
Pondicherry,  Madras,  Calcutta,  Agra,  Bombay  and  Co¬ 
lombo,  with  twenty  bishoprics.  The  Patriarch  of  Goa 
was  made  Primate  of  the  East,  with  the  Suffragan  Sees 
of  Cochin,  Cranganore  and  Mylapore,  and  his  province 
was  placed  under  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Extraor¬ 
dinary  Affairs  while  the  remaining  provinces  have  been 
under  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Propaganda. 

Importance  of  the  Hierarchy . — Having  realized  the 
cherished  wish  of  seeing  the  Church  under  a  Hierarchy, 
the  Holy  Father  hoped  to  see  it  bring  forth  such  fruits  as 
would  recall  the  age  of  St.  Francis  Xavier.  With  the 
workers  at  peace  chances  stood  for  an  abundant  harvest 
and  the  fruits  produced  in  the  Church  in  India  since  1886 
well  show  that  Pope  Leo’s  hopes  are  fast  approaching 
realization.  Even  others  than  Catholics  have  noticed  the 
flourishing  condition  of  the  Church  subsequent  to  the  in¬ 
stitution  of  the  Hierarchy.  So  much  so  is  this  the  case 
that  the  Anglican  Archdeacon  of  Madras,  writing  to  his 
brethren  in  England,  could  say :  “A  tremendous  advance 
in  pastoral  administration  and  missionary  enterprise  has 
followed  the  establishment  of  the  new  Roman  Hier¬ 
archy.”  1 

Hew  Sees. — That  the  Catholic  Church  is  elaborately 
organized  and  is  administered  with  remarkable  ability  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  India  possessed  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  World  War,  nine  archdioceses,  twenty-two  dioceses, 
three  vicariates,  and  four  prefectures  apostolic.  Compar¬ 
ing  this  division  with  that  existing  prior  to  the  formation. 

1  Catholic  Missions,  New  York,  Vol.  X,  1916,  p.  204. 


144 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


of  the  Hierarchy  we  find  a  great  development.  Before 
Pope  Leo’s  Encyclical  had  changed  the  ecclesiastical  map 
of  India  there  were  only  twenty  or  more  vicariates.  As 
mentioned  above  the  Holy  Father  changed  these  into  arch¬ 
dioceses  and  dioceses.  The  delimitations  of  1886  were 
afterwards  supplemented  by  further  adjustments  and 
subdivisions. 

Increase  of  Clergy. — Up  to  1886  European  mission¬ 
aries  of  different  Orders  and  nationalities,  assisted  by 
such  native  and  secular  or  other  priests  as  they  were  able 
to  train,  had  taken  care  of  the  vicariates  apostolic.  When 
the  Hierarchy  was  established,  the  same  regime  was  re¬ 
tained  and  Ordinaries  were  generally  taken  from  the  re¬ 
spective  Order  or  Congregation.  Seeing  that  one  of  their 
own  was  raised  to  such  a  dignity  naturally  claimed  the 
attention  of  the  brethren  at  home.  The  missions  thus  be¬ 
came  a  personal  and  individual  affair  of  the  Orders  and 
Congregations,  and,  wishing  to  see  the  work  of  their 
brethren  a  success,  they  spared  no  efforts  to  give  what 
assistance  they  could  to  the  missions.  The  result  was  a 
steady  growth  of  new  workers  at  the  front.  The  number 
of  priests  increased  from  1,765  in  1884  to  2,150  in  1913 
and  to  3,280  in  1922. 

Neio  Bodies  of  Missionaries. — The  Mill  Hill  Fathers 
entered  India  in  1887 ;  the  Holy  Cross  Fathers  returned 
to  India  in  1888  after  an  absence  of  twelve  years;  the 
Belgian  Capuchins,  in  1888;  the  French  Capuchins,  in 
1890;  the  Capuchins  of  the  North  Tyrolese  Province,  in 
1892;  the  French  Jesuits,  in  1893;  the  Belgian  Jesuits, 
in  1895 ;  the  Salesian  Fathers  of  Don  Bosco,  in  1906 ;  and 
the  English  Capuchins,  in  1910.  The  Benedictines  left 
Dacca  in  1888.  These  contingents  put  fresh  vigor  and 
renewed  life  into  the  forces  fighting  for  the  spread  of 
Christ’s  Kingdom  on  earth.  With  fresh  troops  added  to 
their  armies  the  Ordinaries  could  hope  for  an  advance 
where  heretofore  they  had  to  man  their  guns  day  and  night 
to  avert  retreat,  Father  Schwager  commenting  on  this 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  HIERARCHY  145 


point  says,  in  substance,  that  we  can  hardly  speak  of  a 
special  mission  to  the  pagan  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word 
until  the  close  of  the  eighties,  for  the  care  of  the  nu¬ 
merous  native  and  European  Catholics  and  the  endeavors 
along  educational  lines,  especially  in  the  field  of  higher 
education,  demanded  the  whole  energy  of  the  overworked 
bishops  and  missionaries.2  However,  when  Pope  Leo 
lightened  the  burden  of  the  bishops  by  cutting  down  the 
area  of  their  vast  fields  and  by  creating  new  dioceses, 
more  care  could  be  given  to  the  faithful,  and  the  work  of 
preaching  the  Gospel  could  be  extended  to  the  pagan. 

Brotherhoods  and  Sisterhoods. — The  growth  of  Cath¬ 
olic  Brotherhoods  and  Sisterhoods  kept  pace  with  the 
increasing  number  of  priests.  In  1881  we  find  242 
Brothers  and  603  Sisters;  in  1911,  643  Brothers  and 
3,615  Sisters.  To-day  there  are  sixty-three  congregations 
represented  in  India,  with  4,965  Sisters.  Twelve  congre¬ 
gations  with  723  Brothers  are  active  in  educational  work 
in  the  colleges,  schools  and  orphanages,  while  some  are 
engaged  in  the  field  of  evangelization.  The  names  of 
these  Brotherhoods  are  as  follows:  the  Brothers  of  St. 
Gabriel,  in  Pondicherry  and  Mysore ;  the  Brothers  of 
St.  Patrick,  in  Madras,  Coimbatore,  Agra  and  Lahore; 
the  Brothers  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  in  Colombo  and 
Madras;  the  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  in  Trichinop- 
oly ;  the  Brothers  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  in 
Mysore  and  Trichinopoly ;  the  Brothers  of  St.  Teresa,  in 
Verapoly;  the  Brothers  of  St.  Joseph,  in  Jaffna;  the 
Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools,  in  Colombo,  Southern 
and  Northern  Burma  and  Malacca;  the  Christian 
Brothers,  in  Calcutta  and  Allahabad;  the  Franciscan 
Tertiaries,  in  Agra  and  Lahore;  the  Franciscan  Mission¬ 
ary  Brothers  of  Paderborn,  in  Colombo,  Nagpur  and 
Agra;  and  the  Little  Brothers  of  Mary  in  Trincomalie. 
Among  these  are  included  not  only  benevolent  workers  of 

2  Friedrich  Schwager,  Die  katliolische  Heidenmission  der  Gegen- 
uxvrt,  Steyl,  1909,  pp.  349-350. 


146  INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 

foreign  shores,  but  also  native  Brotherhoods  and  Sister¬ 
hoods. 

Their  Work. — That  these  Brothers  and  Sisters  are  a 
great  help  to  the  priests  is  attested  by  the  Anglican  Arch¬ 
deacon  in  the  same  letter  from  which  we  quoted  above, 
when  he  says  that  “the  main  streams  of  influence  ( i.e ., 
Catholic)  are  those  connected  with  education  both  primary 
and  secondary  and  also  academic  of  the  highest  standard. 
.  .  .  The  Iloman  Catholic  Schools  in  India  are  steadily 
increasing  in  size,  in  number  and  in  reputation.”  The 
Catholic  missionaries  are  bringing  prestige  to  the  Church 
by  the  part  they  play  along  general  educational  lines. 
They  are  achieving  splendid  results  in  the  field  of  educa¬ 
tion  and  are  establishing  excellent  relations  with  many  of 
the  better-class  Hindus,  Mohammedans  and  Parsis.  Many 
of  the  pagan  graduates  from  the  schools  openly  express 
their  indebtedness  to  their  former  teachers  and  are  usually 
ready  to  befriend  them.  Indeed,  the  noble  work  of  the 
Brothers  and  Sisters  can  scarcely  be  overestimated. 

The  missionary  Sisters,  in  particular,  are  bestowing  a 
remarkable  benefit  upon  the  people  of  India  by  their 
educational  and  charitable  works.  By  conducting  orphan¬ 
ages,  asylums,  dispensaries,  etc.,  they  do  a  noble  service 
not  only  to  the  pagans,  but  especially  to  the  cause  of 
religion.  A  great  number  of  the  conversions  may  well  be 
attributed  to  the  beneficent  influence  of  the  institutions 
managed  by  the  Sisters.  Association  with  the  Sisters  in 
these  institutions  and  intercourse  with  them  on  their 
charity  visits,  does  more  than  anything  else  to  make  the 
truth  known  to  a  great  many  upright  and  pure  souls  born 
and  trained  in  paganism  through  no  fault  of  theirs.  The 
very  presence  of  the  Sisters  is  an  impressive  sermon  to 
the  pagans  on  the  two  virtues  they  do  not  know  even  by 
name — chastity  and  charity.  The  lives  of  the  Sisters 
reflect  the  purity  and  beauty  of  the  angels.  And  where 
can  you  find  women  more  tender  to  the  poor  and  suffering 
among  men,  more  heroic  under  sacrifices  than  the  mission- 


Poor  Clares  (Native  Sisters)  of  Travancore,  India. 


.  ■  “ '  I 


: 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  HIERARCHY  147 


ary  Sisters  ?  Charity,  the  queen  of  virtues,  is  nowhere 
more  charmingly  mirrored  than  in  the  lives  of  these  de¬ 
voted  souls.  Their  merit  is  indeed  great.  Pope  Benedict 
XV.  in  his  Apostolic  Letter  treating  on  the  missions  pays 
them  this  glowing  tribute:  “Worthy  of  special  mention 
and  praise  are  those  virgins  who  have  consecrated  them¬ 
selves  to  God  and  have  gone  to  the  missions  in  great 
numbers  to  devote  themselves  to  the  education  of  children 
and  to  numerous  works  of  mercy  and  charity.  We  hope 
that  this  commendation  of  their  services  may  stimulate 
their  courage  and  enthusiasm  for  the  benefit  of  Holy 
Church.”  3 

Churches ,  Schools  and  Charitable  Institutions . — The 
great  increase  of  Catholic  population  naturally  necessi¬ 
tated  an  increase  of  churches  and  schools.  This  is  evident 
from  the  following  table : 


Year 

1871 

1901 

1922 

Churches  and  Chapels  .  . 

2,603 

5,044 

6,712 

Schools  . 

1,168 

3,430 

4,946 

Pupils  . 

47,250 

185,238 

337,130 

There  is  also  a  marked  growth  in  hospitals,  orphanages, 
homes  and  other  charitable  institutions.  In  1901  India 
(excluding  Ceylon  and  Burma)  had  158  orphanages  with 
11,108  inmates.  In  1911  in  entire  India  we  find  232 
orphanages  with  14,000  charges  and  in  1922  there  were 
261  orphanages.  Statistics  for  1911  show  thirty-one  hos¬ 
pitals  and  168  dispensaries. 

Catholic  Literary  Enterprise. — In  this  period  of  gen¬ 
eral  progress  the  Catholic  Press  has  played  an  important 
role.  Since  1886  about  fifty  new  publications  have  ap- 

3  Rev.  Paola  Manna,  The  Conversion  of  the  Pagan  World,  trans¬ 
lated  by  Rev.  J.  F.  McGlinchey,  D.D.,  Boston,  Mass.,  1921,  pp. 
169,  174. 


148 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


peared,  among  which  some  thirty  are  in  English,  the  rest 
in  other  European  or  native  languages.  In  1911  we  count 
nineteen  Catholic  printing  houses. 

Advance  along  Spiritual  Lines. — With  all  this  mate¬ 
rial  progress  the  missionary  knows  full  well  that  he  is  not 
achieving  the  greatest  success  possible,  for  he  realizes  that 
the  Kingdom  of  God  is  within  the  hearts  of  the  people 
and  does  not  rest  on  material  foundation.  The  true  gauge 
of  missionary  achievement  lies  in  the  flourishing  condition 
of  the  spiritual  life  of  his  charges.  And  in  this  line,  too, 
there  is  a  noteworthy  gain. 

Figures  of  Catholics  for  1884  show  approximately 
1,256,100.  Statistics  for  1913  indicate  that  this  number 
increased  to  1,786,465.  This  would  mean  an  addition  to 
India’s  Catholics  of  530,365  for  the  years  1884—1913,  or 
an  average  annual  increase  of  15,300.4 

The  sacramental  life  of  the  people  is  likewise  on  the 
increase.  In  Bettiah  in  Northern  India,  5,199  Com- 
jnunions  are  reported  for  the  year  1895.  During  the 
following  years  the  number  increased  steadily  until  it 
reached  17,818  for  the  year  1906.  In  1913  as  many  as 
36,971  Communions  were  received.  In  1911  there  were 
in  the  Diocese  of  Trichinopoly  1,695,192  Communions; 
in  Calcutta,  772,000;  in  Quilon,  614,000;  in  Mangalore, 
568,000. 

Advance  in  Individual  Fields,  Province  of  Goa. — On 
September  1,  1886,  Goa  was  given  the  title  of  “Patriarch 
of  the  East  Indies”  by  the  Constitution :  Humance  Salutis 
Auctor.  The  first  Patriarch  was  the  Archbishop  Dom 
Antonio  Yalente  (1886—1908).  His  reign  was  a  long  and 
glorious  one  for  the  Church  in  Goa.  Under  him  the 
Seminary  at  Kachol  was  founded  and  many  other  schools 
were  established.  He  held  the  first  Provincial  Council  in 

4  These  figures  exclude  Ceylon  and  Burma,  and  are  based  on  a 
comparative  study  of  statistics  as  given  by  O.  Werner,  S.  J.,  in 
his  Katholischer  Missionsatlas,  Freiburg,  1884,  and  those  given  by 
P.  C.  Streit,  S.  V.  D.,  in  Atlas  Hierarchical,  Freiburg,  1913. 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  HIERARCHY  149 


300  years,  with  sessions  from  December  3,  1904  to 
January  6,  1905.  Furthermore  he  presided  at  the  Eu¬ 
charistic  Congress  for  India,  held  in  1900;  seventeen 
bishops  and  500  priests  attended  this  Congress. 

In  1907  the  population  of  the  archdiocese  numbered 
about  two  and  a  half  million  inhabitants,  of  whom  335,031 
were  Catholic.  According  to  the  Catholic  Directory  for 
1908  there  were  595  conversions  in  the  previous  live  years ; 
but,  as  Monsignor  Zaleski  observes,  the  missionaries  must 
still  combat  many  superstitious  practices  even  among  the 
Christians.  There  are  about  620  native  priests  in  the 
archdiocese  and  30  European  priests.  A  seminary  has 
been  established  at  Damaur,  a  Suffragan  See  of  Goa, 
which  was  the  last  of  the  Indo-Portuguese  dioceses.  The 
whole  Province  of  Goa  (consisting  of  Goa,  Damaun, 
Cochin  Mylapore)  in  1922  counted  a  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  of  604,819  with  85  European  and  826  native  priests. 

In  the  Diocese  of  Mylapore  the  bishop  has  enjoyed 
unhampered  jurisdiction  since  the  conclusion  of  peace 
between  the  Vatican  and  Portugal.  The  82,896  Catholics 
(1922)  are  well  cared  for  by  eighty-three  priests,  of  whom 
twenty-six  are  European  and  fifty-seven  native.  In  the 
beginning  many  of  the  pariahs,  driven  by  poverty,  even 
went  so  far  as  to  work  in  heathen  pagodas.  But  in  1906, 
the  Italian  Salesian  Fathers  established  themselves  in 
Tanjore  and  did  much  to  overcome  this  difficulty  by  open¬ 
ing  aid-stations.5  In  January  of  1912  the  Fourth  Eucha¬ 
ristic  Congress  of  India  was  held  at  San  Thome,  in  which 
fourteen  bishops  took  part. 

Province  of  Agra. — Agra  was  created  an  archdiocese 
in  1886  and  is  under  the  care  of  the  Capuchin  Fathers. 
In  1840  the  entire  Capuchin  missions  in  Northern  India 
embraced  but  six  stations,  whilst  in  1922  the  Archdiocese 
of  Agra  alone  with  its  29,000,000  inhabitants  had  twenty- 
one  mission  centers,  besides  sixteen  mission  posts.  Thirty- 
two  European  and  six  native  priests  have  charge  of  these 

6  Friedrich  Sch  wager,  op.  c.,  p.  379. 


150 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


mission  stations.  The  Sisters  of  Jesus  and  Mary  with  a 
membership  of  fifty-three  conduct  ten  establishments  in 
the  archdiocese.  The  Indian  Boys’  School  and  the  Indian 
Girls’  School  are  attended,  for  the  most  part,  by  children 
of  the  ancient  Christian  communities.  The  central  point 
of  the  native  missions  was  for  a  long  time  Sardhana. 
There  is  a  mission  press  at  Sardhana  from  which  many 
books  of  instruction  and  devotion  in  both  the  Hindustani 
and  Hindi  languages  have  gone  forth.6  The  European 
Catholics,  4,832  in  all,  receive  constant  attention,  espe¬ 
cially  in  the  more  important  cities  of  Agra,  Mussoorie  and 
Simla.  In  each  of  these  three  cities  are  flourishing  estab¬ 
lishments  for  the  education  of  youth,  and  in  Agra  and 
Mussoorie  there  are  colleges  with  university  courses  for 
Europeans.  In  1922  there  were  thirty-three  schools  in  the 
archdiocese  with  an  attendance  of  972  boys  and  493  girls. 

The  apostolate  of  the  Capuchin  Fathers  in  Allahabad, 
a  Suffragan  See  of  Agra,  has  met  with  many  obstacles  due 
to  poverty  and  the  lack  of  priests.  The  charity  of  the 
Fathers  during  the  famine  of  1897  gained  for  them  much 
prestige.  The  flourishing  Christian  Colony  at  Jelicote  is 
a  relic  of  the  time  of  the  famine.  On  the  seventh,  eighth 
and  ninth  of  January,  1890,  the  First  Diocesan  Synod 
was  held  in  St.  Joseph’s  Cathedral.  The  First  General 
Congress  of  Franciscan  Tertiaries  of  India  assembled  at 
Allahabad  on  November  10  and  12,  1903.  Many  impor¬ 
tant  questions  were  discussed  and  resolved  upon;  promi¬ 
nent  among  them  was  the  foundation  of  Catholic  Associa¬ 
tions,  clubs  and  newspapers.7  Father  Poli,  the  present 
Bishop  of  Allahabad,  was  the  moving  spirit  of  this  Con¬ 
gress.  Two  archbishops,  one  bishop,  two  administrators 
apostolic,  one  prefect  apostolic,  three  superiors  regular, 
thirty  priests  and  more  than  200  delegates  honored  the 
assembly  with  their  presence.  One  of  the  features  of  this 

6  Ibidem,  p.  413. 

7  The  Catholic  Historical  Review,  Vol.  II  (New  Series),  1922, 
p.  452. 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  HIERARCHY  151 


Tertiaries’  Congress  was  the  attendance  of  the  Catholic 
Kajah  of  Tagpur.  The  story  of  his  conversion  is  interest¬ 
ing.  Whilst  returning  from  a  trip  to  England  he  met  a 
Capuchin,  Er.  Romolo,  who  was  on  his  way  to  Agra.  The 
rajah,  a  man  of  serious  and  reflective  mind,  was  attracted 
by  the  Friar,  and  entered  into  many  religious  discussions 
with  him.  When  they  reached  India,  the  rajah  invited 
Er.  Romolo  to  his  palace  at  Tagpur.  On  the  Friar’s 
arrival  the  rajah  asked  for  baptism,  and  took  the  name 
Francis  Xavier.  His  wife  was  converted  on  her  deathbed. 
In  the  rajah’s  territory  many  persons  have  since  embraced 
Christianity,  and  the  movement  is  spreading  to  the  neigh¬ 
boring  districts.8 

On  November  16,  1913,  the  Catholic  Association  of 
Allahabad  was  solemnly  inaugurated.  There  were  present 
two  archbishops,  three  bishops,  one  prefect  apostolic  and 
over  twenty  priests.  In  1919  a  large  portion  of  this  dio¬ 
cese  was  cut  off  and  incorporated  into  the  newly  erected 
Diocese  of  Patna.  In  1922  Allahabad  counted  9,301  Cath¬ 
olics  and  28  Capuchin  priests. 

In  the  year  1890  the  Propaganda  appointed  the  French 
Capuchins  to  the  southwestern  parts  of  the  Archdiocese 
of  Agra,  and  two  years  later  made  it  the  Prefecture  of 
Rajputana.  It  comprises  a  territory  with  12,942,000 
inhabitants,  among  whom  are  11,935,157  Hindus.  About 
1890  the  Capuchins  took  over  the  cities  of  Jaipur,  Ajmere, 
Mhow  and  Neemuch.  In  1892  the  Franciscan  Sisters  of 
Angers  arrived,  and  in  a  short  time  a  school,  an  orphanage 
and  a  hospital  were  established.  A  little  later  a  station 
was  opened  at  Thandla,  among  the  Bhils,  where  a  medical 
dispensary  and  a  small  agricultural  school  for  orphans 
were  also  established.  There  is  another  orphanage  at 
Mariapur.  The  Sisters  of  Angers  had  fifty-nine  members 
of  their  Order  in  Rajputana  in  1922. 

The  most  flourishing  diocese  in  Northern  India  is 

8 Franciscan  Annals  and  Tertiary  Record ,  Crawley,  Sussex,  Vol. 
XXXII,  1908,  p.  86  ff. 


152 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


Lahore,  winch  was  erected  in  1888  and  entrusted  to  the 
Belgian  Capuchins.  In  1922  it  had  a  Catholic  population 
of  26,591,  of  which  23,314  were  natives.  In  the  same 
year  baptism  was  administered  to  1,492  adult  heathens, 
407  heathen  children  and  1,148  children  of  Catholic 
parents. 

By  a  decree  of  May  21,  1913,  A j mere  was  erected  into 
a  diocese,  and  the  Bt.  Bev.  Fr.  Fortunatus  Caumont, 
Prefect  Apostolic,  was  appointed  bishop.  In  1922  thirty- 
six  Capuchin  priests  and  one  native  secular  priest  cared 
for  the  5,889  Catholics  of  this  diocese,  of  whom  5,388  were 
natives.  One  of  the  latest  sisterhoods  established  is  that 
of  “the  Mission  Sisters  of  A  j  mere,”  all  natives.  This 
community  was  founded  in  April  1911  by  the  Capuchins, 
who  opened  a  novitiate  for  Anglo-Indian  girls  in  the  same 
year.  These  native  mission  Sisters  belong  to  the  Third 
Order  of  St.  Francis,  and  in  1922  had  thirty-five  members. 

The  Mayo  College  of  Ajmere,  the  “Eton  of  India,”  was 
established  in  1875.  It  is  devoted  exclusively  to  the 
education  of  the  sons  of  the  chiefs,  princes  and  leading 
thakurs  of  Bajputana.  It  is  the  premier  institution  of  its 
kind  in  India  and  takes  the  lead  of  all  other  Bajkumar 
colleges  in  importance,  size  and  magnificence. 

From  1800  to  1889  only  two  Fathers  were  in  charge  of 
the  mission  of  Bettiah.  But  in  1889  Propaganda,  at  the 
request  of  the  Capuchin  General,  confided  Bettiah  to  the 
Capuchin  Province  of  Tyrol.  Six  Fathers  and  three  lay 
Brothers  arrived  in  the  same  year,  and  soon  after  were 
followed  by  others.  In  1892  Bettiah  was  erected  into  a 
prefecture  apostolic  to  which  Nepal  was  added  in  1893. 

Three  miles  from  Bettiah  is  Dossaya,  where  the  famine 
of  1896  reduced  the  people  to  extreme  want.  Many  of  the 
pagans  applied  to  the  missionaries  for  support  and  became 
Christians.  Homes  were  built  for  them  and  a  new  church 
was  opened  in  1898.  To  the  north  of  Bettiah  several 
stations  have  been  founded,  and  in  other  directions  east 
and  south  mission  stations  dot  the  country.  When  the 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  HIERARCHY  153 

World  War  broke  out,  the  Bettiab  mission  bad  eleven  resi¬ 
dences,  fourteen  stations,  thirteen  churches,  sixteen  schools, 
nine  orphanages  and  four  hospitals.  There  were  engaged 
in  it  fifteen  Capuchin  priests,  seven  lay  Brothers  and  four 
Indian  secular  priests,  besides  twenty-three  Sisters  and  a 
numerous  staff  of  native  catechists.  During  their  first 
years  of  labor  the  Capuchin  missionaries  extended  their 
field  of  activity.  In  quick  succession  new  stations  were 
founded  at  Latonah  (1891),  Somastipur  (1892),  Darb- 
hanger  (1895)  and  Muzaffarpur  (1898),  all  of  which 
places  lie  in  the  east.  In  the  western  part  the  districts  of 
Ramnagar  and  Rampur  were  formed  in  1895.  In  1894 
the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross  from  Ingenbohl,  Switzer¬ 
land,  gladly  accepted  the  invitation  to  take  up  work  in 
this  mission,  and  established  charitable  institutions  for 
orphans,  widows  and  infirm  at  Bettiah,  Churee,  and  later 
at  Bannchapra  and  Champattia.  The  noble  example  of 
these  Sisters  drew  the  attention  of  the  people  to  their 
state  of  life,  and  four  years  after  their  arrival  several 
Indian  maidens  were  invested  as  Sisters  of  St.  Francis. 
The  foundation  of  a  native  Sisterhood  was  thus  laid.  The 
zeal  and  loving  kindness  of  the  missionaries  and  Sisters 
towards  the  poor  and  needy  are  drawing  the  people  on  to 
a  realization  of  higher  things,  and  records  show  an  average 
of  100  to  150  conversions  annually.9  In  1914  the  thirty- 
five  schools  with  854  children  were  in  a  flourishing  con¬ 
dition.  Ten  orphanages  sheltered  403  children.  Forty 
catechists  were  at  work  in  1906.  In  1914  the  mission¬ 
aries  were  exiled,  and  in  1919  the  whole  territory  was 
handed  over  to  the  Jesuits,  and  since  then  forms  a  part  of 
the  Diocese  of  Patna. 

Province  of  Calcutta. — In  1908  the  Archdiocese  of 
Calcutta  had  80,000  Catholics  and  40,245  catechumens, 
attended  to  by  more  than  100  Jesuits,  334  catechists,  211 
teachers  and  193  Sisters  from  five  different  European 
Sisterhoods.  There  were  9,762  native  school  children. 

8  Friedrich  Sell  wager,  op.  c.,  p.  418. 


154 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


Figures  for  the  archdiocese  in  1922  showed  164,658  Cath¬ 
olics,  47,163  catechumens,  159  European  and  11  native 
priests,  119  Brothers  and  215  Sisters. 

Whilst  for  the  most  part  a  diocese  of  civil  and  military 
stations,  Calcutta  has  in  Chota  Nagpur  one  of  the  most 
favorable  fields  in  India.  This  hilly  land  is  inhabited  by 
5,900,000  Indians,  thei  greater  number  of  whom  a,re 
Hindus,  and  about  one  and  one-half  million  Kols.  Fr. 
Constantine  Lievens,  S.  J.,  was  sent  to  this  mission  about 
1885.  He  settled  at  Iamgain  and  took  up  the  study  of  the 
language.  Thence  he  went  to  Torpa,  which  lies  in  the 
heart  of  Chota  Nagpur.  Here  he  gained  the  friendship 
of  the  magistrate  and  of  Judge  Cornish.  With  the  help 
of  these  officials  he  mastered  the  judicial  system  of  the 
place  to  such  an  extent  that  later  even  judges  sought  his 
advice  in  difficult  cases.  This  knowledge  of  the  law 
became  Fr.  Lievens’  net  to  draw  thousands  of  heathens 
into  the  Bark  of  Peter.  Before  his  arrival  the  Kols  had 
escaped  the  unjust  oppression  of  the  Zemindars  and 
Tikedars  by  leaving  the  country  in  great  numbers.  Fr. 
Lievens  put  an  end  to  this  abuse  by  applying  his  knowledge 
of  the  law  to  help  the  people.  This  kindness  of  the  mis¬ 
sionary  gained  for  him  the  esteem  of  the  Kols  and  his 
name  soon  became  a  household  word.  Entire  villages 
expressed  their  desire  for  instruction  in  the  Catholic 
Religion.  Unable  to  supply  this  demand  single-handed, 
he  relieved  the  pressing  need  by  thoroughly  instructing 
200  catechists.  In  the  beginning  of  1889  a  delegation  of 
1,000  heads  of  families  had  come  from  Barway  in  the 
northwestern  part  of  the  district  for  instruction  and  bap¬ 
tism.  Fr.  Lievens  sent  catechists  to  the  place  and  later  in 
the  year  went  there  himself.  It  was  here  that  he  achieved 
his  greatest  triumphs.  In  three  weeks  he  baptized  13,000 
persons  and  had  10,000  more  in  preparation. 

A  very  important  Provincial  Council  was  opened  at 
Calcutta  in  1894  at  which  the  Apostolic  Delegate,  Mgr. 
Ladislaus  Zaleski,  presided.  There  were  present  also 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  HIERARCHY  155 


Archbishop  Goethals  of  Calcutta,  Bishop  Pozzi  of  Krish- 
nagar,  Bishop  Louage  of  Dacca  and  Very  Rev.  Muenzlo- 
her,  S.  D.  S.,  Prefect  Apostolic  of  Assam.  Leaders  of 
Catholic  thought  in  India  had  for  a  long  time  considered 
the  advantages  of  uniting  the  Catholic  laymen  into  a  con¬ 
federation.  In  1910  a  pamphlet  entitled  Awake  and 
Unite  appeared  and  started  a  movement  that  matured  in 
the  “First  Catholic  Day”  at  Calcutta  in  November  1911. 
The  opening  day  brought  a  surprise  to  the  leaders  when 
they  saw  assembled  almost  10,000  Catholics.  By  this 
meeting  the  confederation  of  all  Catholic  laymen  in  India 
was  begun.10 

In  1888  the  Holy  See  gave  over  the  Diocese  of  Dacca 
to  the  Holy  Cross  Fathers.  Mgr.  Louage,  consecrated 
Bishop  in  1891,  called  in  the  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  the 
Missions  of  Lyons.  IJp  to  the  year  1894,  the  year  of  his 
death,  this  bishop  increased  the  number  of  priests  from 
nine  to  fifteen.  Under  his  successor,  Bishop  Hurth,  the 
missions  wrere  sorely  tried  by  plagues,  cyclones  and 
earthquakes.  Towards  the  end  of  1907  the  diocese  boasted 
of  twenty-eight  schools  with  1,600  children,  and  also  four 
convent  schools  of  the  Sisterhoods  and  five  orphanages  with 
246  inmates.  Dacca  still  feels  the  effects  of  the  Portu¬ 
guese  Schism.  In  consequence  of  the  Schism  the  field 
lost  the  pecuniary  support  of  the  Portuguese  Government 
and  was  thrown  into  a  state  of  extreme  want.  Almost  from 
its  very  beginning,  pests,  storms,  misfortunes  and  un¬ 
healthy  climate  allied  themselves  to  spoil  the  hard  earned 
fruits  of  zealous  workers,  so  that  most  of  the  energy  of 
later  days  had  to  be  applied  to  reconstruction  rather  than 
to  extension.  These  misfortunes  are  still  the  lot  of  Dacca, 
as  may  be  culled  from  mission  reports  of  this  place. 
Owing  to  these  calamities  and  the  great  poverty  of  the 
people,  small  progress  is  made  in  this  field.  But  the 
labors  of  the  heroes  in  this  unfruitful  territory  must  not 

10  Berioht  ueber  die  Nordtirolisohe  Kapnzvner  Mission  von  Bettiah 
und  Nepal,  Innsbruck,  1911,  p.  58. 


156 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


be  gauged  by  the  small  returns,  for  these  men  are  tilling 
one  of  the  most  arid  portions  of  India.  In  1922  Dacca 
had  13,006  Catholics,  20  priests  and  149  conversions. 

The  Diocese  of  Krishnagar  in  the  Calcutta  Province 
was  a  good  example  of  strenuous  labor  with  meager  re¬ 
sults.  This  field  was  given  to  the  Milan  Seminary  in 
1854  and  was  raised  to  a  prefecture  in  1870.  The  en¬ 
deavors  of  the  missionaries  met  with  small  returns,  so  that 
as  late  as  1904  there  was  comparatively  little  advance. 
So  in  1880  we  find  1,200  Catholics  and  nine  priests;  in 
1904  there  were  4,018  Catholics,  eight  priests,  forty-seven 
churches  and  chapels  and  thirty-two  conversions.  This 
mission  was  financially  embarrassed  until  by  the  extraor¬ 
dinary  efforts  of  the  Milan  Seminary  and,  in  particular, 
by  those  of  Father  Cozzaniga  the  debt  was  liquidated  and 
a  new  mission  opened.11  Since  1908,  however,  the  Cath¬ 
olics  have  increased  from  4,500  to  6,728  in  1913  and  to 
13,981  in  1922.  This  increase  is  an  unmistakable  indi¬ 
cation  that  the  diocese  has  begun  to  feel  the  warmth  of  the 
Light  of  Faith. 

Province  of  Bombay. — When  the  Indian  Hierarchy 
was  established  in  1886,  Bombay  was  created  an  arch¬ 
diocese  with  the  See  of  Poona  as  its  suffragan.  In  1893 
the  Dioceses  of  Mangalore  and  Trichinopoly  were 
also  made  suffragans.  The  Jesuit  Fathers  of  Bombay 
care  for  over  24,000  Catholics.  By  a  ruling  of  the  Propa¬ 
ganda,  the  Jesuits,  in  1893,  established  missions  in  Guja¬ 
rat  and  Sind,  and  in  1895,  in  Mountboo,  near  Pajputana, 
among  the  Sikhs.  The  Jesuit  Fr.  Heggelin  held  confer¬ 
ences  with  the  Hindus  in  the  more  important  cities. 
Upadhyaya  Bramabandhav,  a  Bengalese-Brahman,  con¬ 
verted  in  Karachi,  came  forth  as  a  Sanyassi  and  held 
sermons  in  Bombay,  Calcutta,  Madras  and  other  cities, 
and  edited  the  monthly  Sophia  devoted  to  the  spread  of  the 
Faith.  He  also  planned  the  foundation  of  a  Catholic 
Order  of  monks.  But  as  he  would  not  give  up  certain 

11  Friedrich  Schwager,  op.  c.,  p.  430. 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  HIERARCHY  157 


errors  in  regard  to  Faith,  his  paper  was  forbidden  and  he 
himself  lived  at  variance  with  the  ecclesiastical  authori¬ 
ties.  Since  that  time  nothing  more  has  been  heard  of 
Upadhyaya  and  the  Sind  mission.  The  Sikh  mission 
also  had  to  be  given  np.  In  1893  the  mission  at  Patlad 
was  abandoned,  but  two  years  later  Fr.  Martin  established 
a  flourishing  mission  in  Anand,  near  Patlad.  On  the  other 
hand,  prior  to  1913,  various  Protestant  missionaries  had 
been  active  for  more  than  sixty  years  in  this  field.  During 
the  famine  of  1899—1900  the  Fathers  displayed  great 
charity  in  caring  for  the  Christians  and  heathens  alike, 
and  shortly  after,  when  the  plague  and  cholora  spread 
new  terrors  over  the  land,  the  Fathers  doubled  their  acts 
of  mercy  and  heroism.  In  1899  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Cross  came  to  their  assistance  and  established  hospitals 
at  Ahmadabad,  Sarbarnatand  and  Anand.  The  number 
of  Catholics  in  the  whole  archdiocese  in  1904  was  17,242. 
Of  the  fifty  priests  of  the  archdiocese  only  eleven  labored 
outside  of  Bombay  at  the  end  of  1903 ;  the  others 
were  divided  among  the  institutions  in  Bombay  and 
Bandra.  The  first  Provincial  Council  for  the  entire 
Bombay  Province  assembled  in  1893.  In  1922  the 
archdiocese  had  24,306  Catholics,  73  priests,  and  336 
conversions. 

Near  Poona  we  find  the  castes  of  Kunbis  (farmers), 
and  the  Bhils  (thieves),  Mangs  (basket- weavers),  and  the 
Mahers  (farmers).  The  first  ten  years  in  this  field  were 
productive  of  little  fruit.  During  the  famine  of  1888 
many  heathens  from  the  Maher  caste  sought  instructions. 
In  1904  Catholic  schools  of  the  Ahmadnagar  district  had 
2,881  children;  but  the  schools  for  the  higher  castes  failed 
to  effect  a  single  conversion.  It  was  only  in  1889,  that  a 
few  Bhils  broke  away  and  were  soon  followed  by  some 
Kunbis  and  Zanbhars  in  confessing  the  Faith.  The  zeal¬ 
ous  lay  Brother,  Leonard  Zimmer,  in  1904  laid  the  foun¬ 
dation  for  a  new  mission  among  the  timid  Kathkaris  at 
Khandala.  He  made  friends  with  the  people,  taught  them 


158 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


trades  and  instructed  them  in  the  Catholic  Faith.  Two 
priests  then  prepared  them  for  baptism.  When  the  sacra¬ 
ment  was  administered  for  the  first  time  only  five  out  of 
seventy-two  had  the  courage  to  receive  it,  owing  to  the 
threats  of  the  Kathkaris.  This  opposition  soon  disap¬ 
peared  and  many  more  came  into  the  fold.1 2  Statistics  of 
1904  for  this  diocese  show  14,327  Catholics,  thirty-eight 
churches  and  chapels,  twenty-one  European  and  eleven 
native  priests,  and  204  conversions.  A  substantial  in¬ 
crease  is  recorded  in  1922  with  figures  showing  21,861 
Catholics,  13  European  and  22  native  priests,  2  Brothers, 
33  Sisters  and  498  conversions. 

The  Catholic  population  of  Mangalore  in  1922  was 
112,000  under  the  care  of  47  European  and  67  native 
priests,  37  Brothers  and  173  Sisters.  There  were  876 
conversions.  In  the  same  year  Trichinopoly  had  277,565 
Catholics,  114  European  and  62  native  priests,  143  Broth¬ 
ers,  435  Sisters  and  1,338  conversions. 

Province  of  Madras . — Madbas  was  made  an  archiepis- 
copal  see  in  1886,  and  the  Most  Bev.  Joseph  Colgan, 
D.  D.,  was  appointed  archbishop.  In  1907  the  aged  arch¬ 
bishop  put  his  coadjutor  bishop,  John  Aelen,  D.  D.,  in 
charge  of  the  archdiocese.  In  1905  a  new  station  was 
established  at  Vetapalem,  a  town  of  10,000  inhabitants, 
where,  soon  after,  four  villages  joined  the  mission,  and 
in  a  short  time  over  400  catechumens  were  under  instruc¬ 
tion.  In  this  mission,  as  elsewhere,  the  success  depended 
on  the  number  of  good  catechists.  So  in  1905  a  catechist 
school  was  opened  for  Telegu-pariahs.  In  1899  the  native 
Congregation  of  Christian  Brothers  of  St.  Francis  of 
Assisi  was  founded  and  in  the  same  year  a  branch  of  this 
congregation  was  opened  in  Bellary.  In  Veperi,  near 
Madras,  there  is  another  congregation  for  pariah  Sisters 
existing  since  1884.  In  1904  the  45,779  Catholics  had 
158  churches  in  charge  of  thirty-three  European  and 
twenty  native  priests.  There  were  601  conversions.  In 

12  Ibidem,  pp.  399-402. 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  HIERARCHY  159 


1922  we  find  58,246  Catholics  with  43  European  and  22 
native  priests  and  523  conversions. 

Very  noticeable  progress  has  been  made  in  Hyderabad, 
a  Suffragan  of  Madras.  When  Mgr.  Vigano  became 
Bishop  of  Hyderabad  in  1897,  the  diocese  seemed  to  take 
on  a  new  spirit.  In  1897  the  Catholics  of  Telegu  num¬ 
bered  910;  in  1906,  there  were  3,333,  with  2,088  cate¬ 
chumens.  The  number  of  catechists  increased  from 
twenty-seven  to  seventy-one.  This  wonderful  progress 
was  accomplished  with  the  help  of  only  nineteen  priests. 
The  Kingdom  of  the  Mohammedan  Nizams  of  Hydera¬ 
bad,  the  most  powerful  of  the  Indian  princes,  was  here¬ 
tofore  a  fruitless  field;  but  the  zeal  of  the  bishop  also 
made  itself  felt  here.  In  the  beginning  of  the  year  1900 
Bishop  Vigano  had  not  as  yet  thought  of  a  seminary,  but 
toward  the  end  of  the  same  year  a  generous  friend, 
although  himself  in  poor  circumstances,  built  the  seminary 
for  the  bishop.  Five  new  stations  are  due  to  the  zeal  of 
this  bishop.  In  February  1889,  Hyderabad  held  its  first 
Diocesan  Synod.  In  1922  Hyderabad  had  31,177  Catho¬ 
lics,  22  European  and  8  native  priests  and  2,983  con¬ 
versions. 

Vizagapatam  and  Nagpur,  also  Suffragans  of  Madras, 
embrace  a  great  number  of  various  races  and  languages. 
In  1890  thirty-two  members  of  the  renowned  caste  of 
Kajputen  were  converted  to  Christianity.  These  converts 
greatly  aided  the  missionaries  in  spreading  the  Faith 
among  the  other  heathens.  From  1904  to  1906  four  new 
stations  were  added  to  the  Vizagapatam  mission.  In  1922 
Vizagapatam  numbered  11,542  Catholics,  30  priests  (no 
natives)  and  151  conversions. 

The  larger  Diocese  of  Nagpur  progressed  very  slowly 
from  1845  to  1890  when  it  could  boast  of  only  6,465 
Catholics  and  five  central  stations.  But  from  1890  on¬ 
wards  the  diocese  made  great  progress,  and  at  the  present 
time  excels  Vizagapatam  in  every  way.  Ghorgargaon, 
near  Aurangabad,  was  founded  in  1895  by  the  German 


160 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


Jesuits  of  the  Diocese  of  Poona.  Later  on  it  came  into 
the  hands  of  the  Salesian  Fathers,  and  in  1913  could 
boast  of  more  than  3,000  Catholics.  Another  station  of 
like  importance  is  Khwandwa,  north  of  Berar,  founded  in 
1892.  In  this  place  up  to  1903  over  2,000  Indians  had 
joined  the  Catholic  Church.  A  school  Tor  catechists, 
established  in  1892,  supplies  the  necessary  number  of 
catechists.  In  the  northern  and  eastern  sections  of  this 
large  diocese,  the  mission  stations  are  few  and  far  be¬ 
tween,  and  outnumbered  by  the  Protestant  mission  sta¬ 
tions.  In  the  northeast,  near  the  Archdiocese  of  Calcutta, 
the  station  of  Passam  promises  to  become  an  important 
mission  center.  Toward  the  end  of  the  year  1907  there 
were  in  the  Diocese  of  Nagpur  13,000  Catholics  and  2,000 
catechumens,  and  in  1922,  19,000  Catholics,  32  European 
and  11  native  priests  and  about  110  Sisters.  The  general 
development  of  both  dioceses  is  due  in  great  part  to  their 
elaborate  school  system,  and  in  this  respect  also  Nagpur 
is  superior  to  Vizagapatam. 

Province  of  Verapoly. — In  1886  Veeapoly  was  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  an  archiepiscopal  see,  and  Quilon  was 
made  a  suffragan  diocese.  The  Catholics  of  the  Syro- 
Malabar  Rite  remained  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Verapoly 
and  Cranganore  until  Pope  Leo  XIII.  by  a  Brief  of  May 
29,  1887,  separated  the  churches  of  the  Syrian  Rite  on 
the  Malabar  Coast  from  those  of  the  Latin  dioceses.  He 
left  the  latter  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Archbishop  of 
Verapoly  and  of  the  Bishop  of  Cochin,  and  erected  the 
former  into  two  apostolic  vicariates,  one  for  Northern 
Malabar  under  Bishop  Medlycott,  the  other  for  Southern 
Malabar  under  Bishop  Charles  Lavigne,  S.  J.,  and  styled 
them  the  Vicariates  Apostolic  of  Tkichue  and  Kotta- 
yam.  Again  Pope  Leo  XIII.,  out  of  solicitude  for  the 
preservation  of  the  Oriental  Rites  and  in  accordance  with 
the  repeated  prayers  of  the  Syrian  Catholics  of  Malabar, 
granted  them  three  bishops  of  their  own  rite  and  nation¬ 
ality.  By  a  Brief  of  July  28,  1896,  a  new  division  was 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  HIERARCHY  161 


made  and  three  apostolic  vicariates  were  erected  for  them, 
namely,  Trichur,  Ernakttlam  and  •Changanacherry, 
which  are  not  nnder  the  Ecclesiastical  Province  of 
Verapoly.  On  August  29,  1911,  Pope  Pius  X.  restored 
the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Kottayam  for  that  section  of 
the  Syro-Malabar  Christians  who  are  known  as 
“Suddists” — descendants  of  the  fourth  century  emigrant 
Syrians.  Under  Bishop  Makil,  in  the  Vicariate  of 
Changanacherry,  from  1896  to  1905,  churches  and  chapels 
increased  from  100  to  148.  In  nine  years  there  were 
6,000  converts  from  the  farmer  castes  of  Puleyar  and 
Pareyar,  and  two  schismatic  parishes,  with  more  than 
1,000  souls,  were  regained  to  the  Faith.  In  1922 
these  four  vicariates  of  the  Malabar  Catholics  had 
412,368  Catholics,  604  native  priests  and  1,633  conver¬ 
sions. 

In  1890  the  mission  of  the  Carmelites  in  Verapoly 
counted  54,700  Catholics,  and  in  Quilon,  86,000.  By  the 
year  1906  the  number  of  Catholics  in  Verapoly  had  in¬ 
creased  to  67,185,  and  in  Quilon  to  95,000.  In  the  year 
1894  two  Carmelites  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Diocese 
of  Quilon  baptized  as  many  as  2,000  Tamils.  In  number 
of  Catholics,  the  Dioceses  of  Verapoly  and  Quilon  are  in 
advance  of  the  older  Indian  missions,  and  also  in  the 
number  of  pupils  in  the  schools.  In  1922  Verapoly  had 
98,467  Catholics,  42  European  and  38  native  priests  and 
684  conversions;  and  Quilon,  150,989  Catholics,  23  Euro¬ 
pean  and  56  native  priests  and  2,634  conversions. 

The  education  of  the  clergy  is  well  cared  for.  In  1890 
the  Seminary  at  Putempally  near  Verapoly  was  made  a 
General  Seminary  for  the  whole  Carmelite  mission,  the 
Syro-Malabar  mission  and  partly  for  Cochin.  The  clergy 
of  the  Syrian  Rite  are  very  numerous  in  comparison  to 
those  of  other  Indian  dioceses,  for  the  reason  that  the 
older  Christian  parishes  are  very  well  situated  and  easily 
support  a  large  clergy.  Ecclesiastical  life  is  centered  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  district,  for  the  episcopal  cities  of 


162 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


Verapoly,  Cochin,  Ernakulam  and  Trichur,  with  their 
imposing  churches  and  institutions,  are  closely  grouped 
together.  Throughout  the  whole  region  the  influence  of 
the  Catholic  Church  has  made  itself  felt,  especially  in 
Yerapoly,  the  headquarters  of  the  Carmelites  and  the 
residence  of  the  archbishop.  When  the  Carmelites  first 
set  foot  in  this  place  some  two  and  one-half  centuries  ago, 
the  Catholic  Faith  was  unknown.  To-day,  in  the  shadow 
of  the  cathedral  alone,  over  5,000  Catholics  make  their 
residence. 

Province  of  Simla. — The  Archdiocese  of  Simla  was 
erected  September  13,  1910.  It  had  hitherto  been  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Archbishop  of  Agra,  and  was 
formed  by  separating  certain  districts  from  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  Agra  and  the  Diocese  of  Lahore.  The  Most 
Rev.  Anselm  E.  J.  Kenealy,  O.  M.  Cap.,  was  appointed 
first  archbishop.  The  Archdiocese  of  Simla  in  1922 
counted  3,434  Catholics  (2,498  natives),  16  European 
priests  and  39  conversions.  In  the  extreme  northern 
part  of  India  lies  the  Prefecture  of  Kafristan  and 
Kashmir,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Archbishop  of 
Simla.  This  section  has  been  under  the  care  of  the  Mill 
Hill  Fathers  since  July  6,  1887.  The  mission  has  four¬ 
teen  churches  and  chapels,  most  of  which  were  built  in 
recent  years,  four  convent  schools  and  two  hospitals  for 
natives.  Fifteen  priests  and  thirty-seven  nuns  constitute 
(1922)  the  personnel  of  this  field,  which  comprises  an 
area  approximate  to  that  of  New  York  State,  and  has  a 
population  of  26,000,000  souls,  and  a  Catholic  population 
of  about  5,000  souls.  There  is  little  wonder,  then,  that 
statistics  for  1922  show  only  a  slight  increase  over  those 
of  1906.  But  Fr.  Mullan,  a  Mill  Hill  Father  working  in 
this  field,  writes  with  optimism:  “The  results  in  India 
are,  in  general,  fairly  satisfactory.” 

Province  of  Pondicherry. — Pondicherry  was  made  an 
archdiocese  in  1886  and  received  the  territory  of  the 
suppressed  Prefecture  of  Pondicherry.  The  number  of 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  HIERARCHY  163 


Catholics  from  1873  to  1886  increased  to  70,967.  Up  to 
the  year  1901  the  number  of  baptisms  in  northern  Pondi¬ 
cherry  increased  annually  by  two  or  more  thousands.  But 
from  1901  on,  as  other  French  missions,  this  mission 
increased  but  slowly  in  consequence  of  the  increasing  need 
of  means,  the  emigration  of  many  Indians  to  Ceylon, 
Malacca  and  Natal,  and  also  because  of  the  indifference  of 
the  people.  Pondicherry  in  1904  had  141,024  Catholics, 
174  churches,  104  priests,  779  conversions.  Statistics  for 
1922  give  147,710  Catholics,  94  priests  and  3'87  Sisters. 
In  1899  the  Diocese  of  Kumbakomm  was  separated  from 
Pondicherry  in  order  to  lighten  the  burden  of  the  arch¬ 
bishop.  This  diocese  in  1904  numbered  87,742  Catholics, 
512  churches,  41  priests,  126  conversions;  and  in  1922, 
103,118  Catholics,  48  priests,  138  Sisters  and  482  con¬ 
versions. 

The  Paris  Missionary  Society  in  1897  founded  a  Gen¬ 
eral  Seminary  in  Pondicherry.  The  zealous  labors  of  this 
Society  have  been  well  rewarded  by  the  fact  that  up  to 
1909  they  had  trained  over  sixty-nine  native  priests.13 
Besides  several  secondary  schools  in  Bangalore  and 
Coimbatore,  conducted  respectively  by  the  Brothers  of 
St.  Joseph  and  the  Brothers  of  St.  Patrick  (22  in  all),  the 
Society  also  conducts  colleges  for  boys  in  Pondicherry, 
Coimbatore  and  Bangalore  with  1,400  to  1,500  scholars. 
In  1899  the  native  Congregation  of  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Anne  founded  the  College  of  the  Sacred  Heart  for  girls. 
The  total  number  of  school  children  in  the  various  schools 
of  the  archdiocese  was  16,912  in  1906.  Orphanages  and 
hospitals  are  also  numerous.  Pondicherry  alone  has  twelve 
orphanages,  Mysore  eight,  Coimbatore  and  Kumbakonam 
four  and  five,  respectively.  In  1922  Coimbatore  had 
44,014  Catholics,  32  European  and  23  native  priests,  11 
Brothers,  114  Sisters,  332  conversions,  and  Mysore 
56,589  Catholics,  47  European  and  20  native  priests,  9 
Brothers,  313  Sisters  and  1,164  conversions.  The  Diocese 
“Friedrich  Sehwager,  op.  o.,  p.  370. 


164 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


of  Malacca  is  also  a  suffragan  of  the  Archdiocese  of 
Pondicherry,  hut  lies  entirely  outside  of  India. 

Province  of  Ceylon. — In  the  year  1886  Colombo  was 
made  an  archdiocese.  Archbishop  Melizan,  appointed  in 
1893,  has  done  much  to  strengthen  the  influence  of  Cath¬ 
olics  in  public  life  by  inaugurating  an  annual  Catholic 
Day  (1902),  and  by  founding  the  political  “Catholic 
Union  of  Ceylon”  (1903),  and  in  connection  with  this 
the  “Catholic  Club”  to  deal  with  social  questions.  Great 
progress  was  made  in  regard  to  schools,  so  that  in  1892 
the  archdiocese  had  215  schools  with  17,640  children,  and 
in  1898  these  numbers  had  increased  to  412  schools  with 
36,398  children.  There  are  two  native  Sisterhoods  in  the 
archdiocese,  namely  that  of  St.  Francis  Xavier  and  that 
of  St.  Peter,  with  250  members.  Twenty  native  priests 
had  gone  forth  from  St.  Bernard’s  Seminary  at  Borella 
up  to  the  year  1907.  The  Catholic  population  of 
Colombo  in  1922  was  279,726,  with  81  European  and  40 
native  priests,  79  Brothers,  486  Sisters  and  1,748  conver¬ 
sions. 

By  a  Brief  dated  August  25,  1893,  two  civil  Provinces 
of  Ceylon,  the  Southern  Province  and  the  Sabaragamuva 
Province,  were  detached  from  the  Archdiocese  of  Colombo 
and  erected  into  the  separate  Diocese  of  Galle.  The  new 
diocese  was  put  in  charge  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  Belgian 
Province.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  diocese  the  mis¬ 
sionaries  met  with  much  opposition  from  the  Buddhists. 
The  victory  of  the  Japanese  over  the  Russians  had  a 
detrimental  effect  on  conversions,  since  it  was  looked  upon 
by  the  heathens  as  a  triumph  of  Buddhism  over  Christian¬ 
ity.  The  Diocese  of  Galle  in  1904  numbered  8,200 
Catholics,  with  46  churches,  17  priests,  245  conversions 
and  70  catechumens.  In  1922  it  had  12,853  Catholics,  28 
priests,  10  Brothers,  47  Sisters  and  155  conversions. 

In  1893  Jaffna  was  erected  into  a  diocese  comprising 
the  Northern  and  North  Central  Provinces  of  Ceylon. 
As  a  result  of  the  removal  of  all  Goanese  jurisdiction  in 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  HIERARCHY  165 


Ceylon  in  1887,  a  new  schism  arose  in  the  north  affecting 
about  twenty  parishes.  A  priest  named  Alvarez  received 
consecration  at  the  hands  of  the  Jacobite  Bishop  Mara- 
thanas  and  assumed  the  title  of  Archbishop  of  India  and 
Ceylon.  The  schism  happily  came  to  an  end  in  1902 
under  Mgr.  Joulain,  who  became  Bishop  of  Jaffna  in 
1893.  Fr.  Jenn  in  1899  established  a  mission  station  in 
Annradhapura,  the  “Holy  City”  of  the  Buddhists,  and  in 
a  short  time  had  collected  about  600  Catholics.  A  high 
school  for  hoys,  an  English  and  an  Indian  school  for  girls, 
an  orphanage  and  the  novitiate  for  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Family,  erected  in  quick  succession,  give  evidence  to  the 
progress  of  Christianity  in  this  city.  The  Buddhists  were 
aroused  and  a  mob  set  fire  to  the  school  buildings  and 
plundered  the  house  of  the  Fathers.14  The  Government 
soon  quelled  the  strife  and  forced  the  Buddhists  to  repair 
the  damage.  In  1904  there  were  in  the  Diocese  of  Jaffna 
44,300  Catholics,  204  churches,  38  priests,  236  conver¬ 
sions  and  275  catechumens.  In  1922  we  find  56,126  Cath¬ 
olics,  54  priests,  37  Brothers,  90  Sisters  and  284  con¬ 
versions. 

In  the  Diocese  of  Kandy,  erected  in  1886,  the  progress 
of  the  Catholic  Religion  was  very  slow,  and  this,  Pope 
Leo  XIII.  attributed  to  the  dearth  of  native  priests.  In 
his  Encyclical,  Ad  Extremas  Orientis  Oras,  of  June  24, 
1893,  he  lamented  this  fact  and  encouraged  the  bishops  to 
build  up  a  native  clergy.  To  this  end  the  Pope  planned 
the  foundation  of  a  large  central  seminary,  which  plan 
he  entrusted  to  Mgr.  Zaleski,  Apostolic  Delegate  in  1892. 
Amptya  was  chosen  as  the  location,  and  the  Seminary  was 
completed  in  May  1899  and  entrusted  to  the  Belgian 
Jesuits.  Up  to  the  year  1918  the  Seminary  had  trained 
213  native  priests.  In  this  Seminary  members  of  various 
castes  have  been  brought  into  a  most  intimate  concourse, 
so  that  the  friction  between  castes,  which  often  prevailed 
in  other  seminaries,  has  been  eliminated  here.  In  1904 
u  Ibidem,  p.  356. 


166 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


the  Diocese  of  Kandy  could  show  27,938  Catholics,  59 
churches,  23  priests,  160  conversions,  20  schools  with 
1,656  pupils,  and  in  1922,  30,228  Catholics,  47  priests,  10 
Brothers,  55  Sisters  and  440  conversions. 

TnmcoMALiE  was  created  a  diocese  in  1893,  and  put  in 
charge  of  the  Belgian  Jesuits.  The  Wesley ans  had  been 
active  here  for  ten  years,  and  were  in  possession  of 
seventy-three  schools.  The  missionaries,  however,  made 
great  progress,  and  the  Catholic  Church  has  gained  quite 
some  prestige.  The  Buddhists  are  not  so  fanatic  here  as 
in  Galle  and  Colombo,  although  immediately  after  the 
Russo-Japanese  War  two  schools  were  burned  by  a  mob. 
In  1904  statistics  for  Trincomalie  give  7,500  Catholics, 
22  churches,  12  priests,  68  conversions  and  45  catechu¬ 
mens.  Figures  for  1922  give  8,318  Catholics,  20  priests 
and  98  conversions. 

Burma. — Mandalay  in  North  Burma  is  the  central 
point  of  this  mission.  In  this  place,  as  in  Rangoon,  a 
parish  church  for  Chinese  and  Tamils  has  been  erected. 
Here,  too,  is  the  world-known  St.  John’s  Leper  Asylum, 
founded  by  Fr.  Wehinger.  In  1891  he  laid  the  founda¬ 
tion  of  the  asylum,  and  in  1895  traveled  throughout  the 
whole  Christian  world  collecting  alms.  With  this  money 
and  the  help  of  the  British  Government  he  built  one  of 
the  best  equipped  institutions  of  its  kind,  and  placed  it  in 
the  care  of  the  Franciscan  Missionary  Sisters  of  Mary. 
More  than  300  lepers  find  a  refuge  in  St.  John’s  Asylum 
every  year. 

The  total  Catholic  population  of  the  three  Vicariates 
of  Burma  in  1911  was  88,447.  There  were  102  churches, 
844  chapels,  91  European  and  14  native  priests,  52  Broth¬ 
ers,  142  Sisters,  411  teachers,  297  catechists,  157  schools 
with  3,879  pupils.  In  1922  these  vicariates  counted 
92,295  Catholics,  82  European  and  29  native  priests,  36 
Brothers,  244  Sisters  and  1,064  conversions.  Since  July 
16,  1920,  British  Burma  has  been  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Apostolic  Delegate  of  India  and  Ceylon.  Although 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  HIERARCHY  167 


geographically  it  forms  part  of  Farther  India,  it  now 
belongs  ecclesiastically  to  India. 

Conclusion. — The  establishment  of  the  Hierarchy  has, 
indeed,  marked  a  new  era  for  the  Catholic  Church  in 
India.  Where  before  the  Church  had  found  it  difficult  to 
hold  her  own,  she  now  masters  the  situation,  and  is  making 
wonderful  progress.  The  number  of  missionaries,  both 
European  and  native,  has  increased ;  churches,  schools  and 
institutions  of  all  kinds  have  been  either  newly  erected  or 
enlarged;  and  Catholic  interests  are  publicly  fostered 
with  great  vigor.  This  advance  of  the  Church  is,  to 
say  the  least,  an  unfailing  gauge  of  her  vitality  and  a 
pledge  of  a  brighter  future.  Dom  Maternus  Spitz,  O.  S.  B., 
writing  in  the  Catholic  Missions  (New  York,  Vol.  X,  p. 
200)  on  the  progress  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  India  has 
this  to  say:  “India  is,  indeed,  a  vexed  problem!  the 
solution  of  which  is  a  burning  question  of  paramount 
importance  ...  if  the  commission  of  Jesus  Christ  to 
His  Church  ‘to  teach  all  nations’  is  to  be  realized.  What 
are  almost  two  and  one  half  millions  of  Catholics  (includ¬ 
ing  Ceylon  and  Burma)  in  a  population  of  three  hundred 
and  fifteen  millions  ?  And  yet,  the  Catholics  in  India, 
though  a  small  body  in  comparison  with  the  millions  out¬ 
side  the  Church,  are  the  most  highly  organized  body  in 
India,  the  only  one  solid  and  serried  mass  in  the  midst 
of  a  vast  floating  crowd  of  warring  religions,  sects  and 
creeds.” 


CHAPTER  V 


THE  WORLD  WAR  AND  SUBSEQUENT  EVENTS 

When  the  great  European  conflict  broke  out  in  the 
summer  of  1914  the  German  and  Austrian  missionaries 
residing  in  India  had  misgivings  as  to  their  possible  fate, 
but  they  lived  in  hope  that  the  British  Government  would 
have  consideration  for  them  on  account  of  the  extensive 
educational  and  social  work  they  were  conducting  among 
the  people.  Their  hopes,  however,  ended  in  bitter  dis¬ 
appointment. 

German  Missionaries  during  the  First  Months  of  the 
War. — During  the  first  months  of  the  war,  it  is  true,  the 
missionaries  of  India  were  treated  leniently  by  Govern¬ 
ment  officials.  About  the  middle  of  August  1914  they 
were  summoned  before  the  civil  authorities  to  register  and 
to  give  their  word  of  honor  that  they  would  do  nothing 
contrary  to  the  laws  of  the  country.  This  registration 
was  conducted  differently  throughout  the  Empire.  In 
Bombay,  for  instance,  it  was  sufficient  for  the  Superior 
to  represent  his  community,  and  a  pass  to  leave  the  city 
was  easily  procured.  But  in  the  north  more  was  de¬ 
manded.  Each  missionary  had  to  appear  personally; 
their  firearms  were  taken  from  them  and  the  plea  that 
they  needed  them  as  protection  against  wild  beasts  was  not 
considered.  Passes  were  seldom  issued.  But  in  spite  of 
these  inconveniences  we  must  nevertheless  say  that  the 
British  Government  at  that  time  had  some  consideration 
for  the  missionaries,  since  the  Germans  who  were  not  mis¬ 
sionaries  were  being  sent  to  the  prison  camp  at  Ahmad- 
nagar  as  early  as  August  1914. 

169 


170 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


Imprisonment  of  First  Jesuits . — Among  the  first  mis¬ 
sionaries  who  suffered  imprisonment  were  the  Jesuits  of 
Bombay  and  Poona.  Although  the  Most  Rev.  Herman 
Juergens,  S.  J.,  Archbishop  of  Bombay,  had  been  assured 
by  the  Governor  himself  that  Mull  confidence’7  was  placed 
in  those  under  his  charge,  still  on  September  10  he  heard 
of  the  intention  of  the  Government  to  imprison  the  younger 
members  of  the  Society.  Every  possible  means  was  em¬ 
ployed  to  avert  the  calamity  and  seemingly  the  end  was 
achieved.  But  the  great  blow  was  preparing  in  silence. 
On  December  1  the  Jesuits  were  informed  that  all  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  community  under  forty-five  years  of  age  were 
to  be  made  prisoners  of  war;  the  rest  were  to  be  held  as 
civilians.  However,  His  Grace  and  thirteen  priests  were 
exempted  and  they  remained  to  conduct  their  schools  and 
colleges  in  Bombay.  The  sad  departure  of  the  first  Jesuits 
from  Bombay  took  place  on  December  29,  1914,  when 
six  priests,  fourteen  scholastics  and  five  lay  Brothers  left 
for  Ahmadnagar. 

Concentration  Camp  at  Ahmadnagar. — Ahmadnagar  is 
an  ancient  city  situated  on  an  elevated  plain  east  of  Bom¬ 
bay.  Its  main  object  of  modern  interest  are  the  military 
barracks,  which  during  the  World  War  were  divided  into 
three  separate  detention  camps.  The  first  camp  was  sur¬ 
rounded  by  barbed  wire  and  was  made  up  mostly  of  tents 
with  a  few  stone  barracks.  This  camp  was  continually 
guarded  by  British  soldiers.  The  second  camp  was  com¬ 
posed  of  barracks  and  in  these  the  prisoners  on  parole 
were  generally  lodged.  These  prisoners  enjoyed  certain 
liberties  and  with  some  restrictions  were  at  perfect 
freedom  within  a  set  radius.  At  the  third  camp  were 
detained  the  civilian  prisoners  and  their  treatment  was 
considerate. 

The  Jesuits  at  Ahmadnagar. — When  the  Jesuits  from 
Bombay  arrived  they  were  assigned  immediately  to  the 
second  camp  but  lodged  in  tents.  That  they  were  placed 
in  this  camp  was  an  exception  due  probably  to  the  Bom- 


WORLD  WAR  AND  SUBSEQUENT  EVENTS  171 

bay  authorities.  The  rule  was  that  all  missionaries, 
whether  Catholic  or  Protestant,  had  to  spend  at  least  some 
time  within  the  barbed  wire  enclosures.  The  Jesuits  soon 
realized  that  they  were  prisoners.  As  stated  above  they 
were  placed  in  tents.  They  were  ordered  to  lug  the  neces¬ 
sary  furniture,  tables,  benches,  bedsteads,  mattresses,  etc., 
from  the  general  storeroom.  They  received  nothing  to  eat 
on  the  first  day.  As  excuse  for  this  treatment  the  com¬ 
manding  officer  said  they  had  arrived  unexpectedly  and 
could  not  receive  better  accommodations.  This  excuse, 
however,  was  not  founded  on  fact.  The  Jesuits  were 
repeatedly  promised  better  quarters,  but  these  promises 
were  not  realized  for  months.  The  hot  season  set  in  and 
made  their  living  condition  next  to  unbearable.  Storms 
brought  in  clouds  of  dust,  heavy  rains  turned  the  floor  into 
a  swamp,  the  nights  were  cool  and  the  continual  draught 
was  dangerous.  The  missionaries  begged  for  two  empty 
barracks,  but  were  refused.  The  hardships  naturally 
brought  with  them  their  evil  effects.  Sickness  crept  in 
and  for  several  weeks  their  mean  habitation  was  converted 
into  a  hospital. 

Additional  Hardships. — This  sad  lot  was  depressing, 
but  it  was  increased  by  the  conduct  of  even  their  fellow 
prisoners,  who  were  mostly  biased  Protestants.  The 
Jesuits  were  not  agreeable  to  them  and  many  bitter  re¬ 
marks  were  passed.  Gradually,  however,  they  were  won 
over  by  kindness  especially  when  the  Jesuits  introduced 
language  courses  in  English,  French,  Italian  and  Spanish. 
At  first  only  a  few  came,  but  later  half  the  camp  par¬ 
ticipated.  When  the  Jesuits  left  at  the  end  of  March  the 
prejudice  had  been  greatly  diminished  and  the  prisoners 
were  sorry  to  lose  their  instructors. 

Conditions  Improved. — The  transfer  of  the  Jesuits  to 
the  civilian  camp  meant  much  for  them.  Here  they  met 
other  religious  from  different  parts  of  the  country.  They 
were  now  allowed  suitable  dwellings.  Community  life 
was  resumed.  A  chapel  was  prepared,  and  the  Eucharistic 


172 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


God  once  more  dwelt  in  their  midst.  Services  were  fre¬ 
quently  held,  in  which  Protestants  also  took  part. 

Power  of  the  Press. — Until  May  1915  only  one-third 
of  the  Catholic  missionary  personnel  of  India  of  German 
or  Austrian  extraction  was  interned,  and  most  of  the 
missionaries  expected  conditions  to  remain  thus.  The 
prolongation  of  the  war,  however,  with  little  prospect  for 
a  British  victory  turned  the  tide.  The  Indian  Press  poi¬ 
soned  the  public  mind.  Day  for  day  the  Germans  and 
everything  connected  with  them  were  denounced  in  the 
strongest  terms.  Statements  as  the  following  were  of 
common  occurrence:  aAll  Germans  in  India  should  be 
imprisoned77 ;  “no  German  should  he  permitted  to  live  in 
British  possessions  after  the  war.77  The  German  mis¬ 
sionary  was  even  compared  to  the  pariah,  the  lowest  and 
most  detested  of  India’s  inhabitants.  This  action  on  the 
part  of  the  Press  had  its  desired  effect.  In  the  beginning 
of  June  it  was  announced  officially  that  all  Germans  and 
Austrians  were  to  be  interned.  Upon  this  declaration  the 
Hierarchy  of  India,  consisting  mostly  of  French,  Belgian 
and  Italian  bishops,  unitedly  sent  an  appeal  to  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  in  behalf  of  the  unfortunate  missionaries.  The 
Most  Bev.  Anselm  Kenealy,  O.  M.  Cap.,  Archbishop  of 
Simla  and  the  only  British-born  bishop  of  India,  and  Rev. 
Ernest  Hull,  S.  J.,  editor  of  the  Bombay  Examiner , 
were  stanch  defenders  of  the  missionaries  both  before 
the  Government  and  in  the  Press.  However,  all  efforts 
were  in  vain,  London  had  legislated  and  India  had 
to  bow. 

Fate  of  Sisterhoods. — During  the  next  few  weeks  India 
was  being  cleared  of  Germans.  Women  and  children  were 
sent  to  their  separate  concentration  camps  at  Belgaum 
near  Poona.  The  Sisterhoods  were  in  danger  of  sharing 
the  same  fate,  but  finally  they  were  interned  in  their  own 
convents.  Not  all  the  Sisters  were  treated  with  equal 
severity.  Some  were  permitted  to  teach  the  children  cer¬ 
tain  branches;  others  were  positively  forbidden  to  teach; 


WORLD  WAR  AND  SUBSEQUENT  EVENTS  173 

whilst  others  again  were  denied  all  communication  with 
the  outside  world. 

The  Missionaries  at  Assam . — Toward  the  middle  of 
June  1915  Rev.  Christopher  Becker,  S.  D.  S.,  Prefect 
Apostolic  of  Assam,  was  notified  to  he  in  readiness  with 
his  confreres  to  leave  for  Ahmadnagar.  The  prefect  apos¬ 
tolic  begged  and  was  granted  three  weeks’  grace  to  make 
some  provision  for  his  missions.  He  wrote  for  priests  to 
the  Most  Rev.  Brice  Meuleman,  S.J.,  Archbishop  of  Cal¬ 
cutta,  who,  as  we  shall  see  later,  responded  in  spite  of  the 
hardships  that  confronted  him.  On  July  9,  1915,  amid 
the  wailing  of  their  flock,  the  members  of  the  Society  of 
the  Divine  Saviour  left  Assam  for  Calcutta  and  Ahmad¬ 
nagar,  where  they  spent  three  months  behind  the  barbed' 
wire  fence.  Here  they  met  Catholic  missionaries  from  all 
parts  of  India:  from  Dacca,  Calcutta,  Nagpur,  Madras, 
Trichinopoly,  Bombay,  Lahore  and  Bettiah.  At  first  no 
distinction  was  made  and  thus  missionaries  were  some¬ 
times  placed  side  by  side  with  some  of  the  most  degraded 
of  human  society.  Only  after  several  months  were  the 
Catholic  missionaries  housed  in  separate  barracks. 

More  Jesuits  Interned. — The  remaining  Jesuits  in 
Bombay  and  Poona  received  official  notice  on  June  23, 
1915,  that  they  also  were  to  leave  their  mission.  Every 
precaution  was  now  taken,  for  the  very  existence  of  the 
missions  was  at  stake.  Fortunately,  however,  they  also 
were  given  three  months’  grace  during  which  time  they 
were  to  call  upon  missionaries  of  Great  Britain  to  take 
their  place.  This  was  encouraging  and  saved  their  mis¬ 
sions  from  total  ruin.  As  the  three  months  were  coming 
to  an  end  the  Jesuits  were  expecting  to  be  taken  to  Ahmad¬ 
nagar.  However,  through  the  influence  of  Fr.  Hull  they 
were  imprisoned  at  the  Jesuits’  relaxation  camp  at  Khan- 
dala  near  Poona,  where  several  of  their  confreres  had 
already  been  interned  since  the  beginning  of  the  war. 

Tyrolese  Capuchins  Expelled. — Heretofore  none  of  the 
alien  enemies  in  India  had  been  expelled  from  the  coun- 


174 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


try,  but  on  August  13,  1915,  the  Indian  Government 
issued  a  final  proclamation  declaring  that  all  Germans  and 
Austrians  above  military  age  should  be  repatriated.  The 
Tyrolese  Capuchins  in  charge  of  the  Prefecture  of  Bet- 
tiah  now  also  became  the  victims  of  British  ingratitude. 
Since  the  beginning  of  the  war  they  had  been  hampered 
in  their  missionary  activities;  still  they  were  permitted 
to  remain  at  their  stations.  Even  this  was  now  denied 
them.  Toward  the  end  of  August  they  received  word  to 
be  in  Bettiah  equipped  for  travel  by  September  9.  Once 
assembled  in  Bettiah  there  was  no  particular  haste,  and 
so  on  the  following  Sunday  solemn  services  were  held  in 
the  prefecture  church  at  which  Fr.  Bemigius  Schwartz, 
O.  M.  Cap.,  Prefect  Apostolic,  preached  a  touching  sermon 
admonishing  his  fiock  to  hold  fast  to  the  true  Faith  they 
had  received  and  to  follow  with  childlike  obedience  the 
new  missionaries  who  would  be  sent  to  them.  According 
to  the  law  not  all  of  these  self-sacrificing  men  were  to  be 
repatriated;  however,  all  the  priests  and  the  two  infirm 
lay  Brothers  obtained  permission  from  the  Government, 
through  the  influence  of  the  Capuchin  Archbishop  of 
Simla,  to  return  to  their  native  country.  They  left  Bet¬ 
tiah  on  November  15  for  Calcutta,  where  they  embarked 
on  the  Golconda  three  days  later.  On  November  24  they 
reached  Madras  where  more  missionaries  were  added  to 
their  number.  The  Golconda  on  this  first  trip  conveyed 
thirty-nine  Catholic  missionaries  from  India. 

Second  Trip  of  the  Golconda. — The  interned  mission¬ 
aries  at  Ahmadnagar  met  with  many  disappointments 
from  September  1915  to  the  following  April.  At  first 
most  of  them  expected  to  leave  India  by  October.  Then 
they  were  told  they  would  not  depart  before  January* 
but  in  reality  they  left  India  only  in  March.  On  March 
28  all  Germans  and  Austrians  including  the  missionaries 
were  conveyed  by  special  train  to  Poona  where  many 
German  women  and  children  were  added  to  their  number. 
At  Khandala  some  thirty  Jesuits  boarded  the  train.  In 


WORLD  WAR  AND  SUBSEQUENT  EVENTS  175 

Bombay  they  embarked,  and  on  March  30,  1916,  the 
famous  Golconda  began  her  second  trip  from  India.  Of 
the  400  on  board  ninety-eight  were  Catholic  missionaries. 
These  missionaries  arrived  in  England  on  May  16  where 
they  were  imprisoned,  and  only  after  four  weeks  were  the 
last  Catholic  missionaries  released  and  sent  to  Holland. 

On  her  twTo  trips,  therefore,  the  Golconda  was  instru¬ 
mental  in  repatriating  or  in  other  words  expelling  137 
Catholic  missionaries,  a  fact  which  will  ever  remain  a 
blemish  on  English  diplomacy.  In  India  there  remained 
behind  about  fifty  missionary  Brothers,  as  prisoners  of 
war,  some  aged  Jesuit  Fathers  whose  expulsion  may  have 
appeared  too  cruel,  twenty-five  Alsatians  working  in 
French  missions,  and  some  130  religious  Sisters.  Many 
of  these,  however,  were  deported  after  the  armistice  and 
so  the  clamoring  of  the  Indian  Press  for  the  barring 
of  all  Germans  even  after  the  war  was  not  entirely  in 
vain. 

Anxiety  of  the  Hierarchy. — The  imprisonment  and 
deportation  of  so  many  active  missionary  forces  could  not 
but  create  a  great  anxiety  among  the  Hierarchy  of  India. 
From  this  missionary  field  the  cry  had  always  been  heard 
that  the  laborers  were  all  too  few  and  now  even  these  few 
were  greatly  reduced.  W7hat  was  to  become  of  the  mis¬ 
sions  ?  How  were  the  vacancies  to  be  filled  ?  How  were 
the  newly  converted  to  be  held  and  cared  for?  These 
were  grave  problems  that  confronted  the  Indian  Epis¬ 
copacy  during  the  war.  But,  while  efforts  were  made  to 
solve  the  difficulties,  those  remaining  missionaries  in  India 
were  presenting  to  the  world  splendid  examples  of  zeal 
and  self-sacrifice  for  the  cause  of  Christ.  They  were 
willing  to  forget  self.  Many  offered  to  double  their 
already  heavy  burden  in  order  that  Catholicism  might 
not  suffer. 

Further  Hardships. — But  we  know  “trials  come  not 
single-handed.”  The  financial  situation  became  pre¬ 
carious.  Nearly  all  help  from  Catholic  Europe,  which 


176 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


had  been  the  mainstay  of  the  missions  of  India,  was  cnt 
off.  The  little  money  that  did  come  from  Europe  had 
less  than  half  of  its  value  due  to  the  unfavorable  rate  of 
exchange.  Food,  clothing  and  building  material  attained 
enormous  prices.  A  number  of  mission  stations  had  to 
be  given  up  and  catechumenates  abandoned;  catechists 
could  not  be  supported  and  many  were  dismissed;  the 
training  school  for  catechists  at  Madras  had  to  be  closed. 
The  archbishops  and  bishops,  realizing  their  own  great  dis¬ 
tress,  appealed  to  their  flock  to  save  the  Indian  missions. 
Although  the  people  were  heavily  taxed  by  the  Government 
on  account  of  the  war,  still  they  hearkened  to  the  call  of 
their  spiritual  leaders  and  contributed  magnanimously. 
Thus,  for  instance,  in  Calcutta  Rs.  40,000  (about 
$13,000)  were  collected  as  extraordinary  alms  in  1915. 
At  first  sight  this  sum  might  appear  small,  but  it  is  not 
if  we  consider  that  most  Catholics  of  India  are  not  blessed 
with  the  riches  of  this  world. 

The  Magnanimity  and  Achievements  of  His  Grace ,  the 
Archbishop  of  Calcutta. — Mgr.  Meuleman,  S.  J.,  the 
Archbishop  of  Calcutta,  must  be  admired  for  his  courage 
and  unshaken  trust  in  God.  Although  the  war  wrought 
much  havoc  in  his  own  archdiocese  still  he  was  willing  to 
help  other  mission  fields.  He  gave  seven  of  his  men  to 
Bombay.  Upon  the  request  of  the  Very  Rev.  Christopher 
Becker,  Prefect  Apostolic  of  Assam,  who  was  to  be  ex¬ 
pelled  with  his  confreres,  he  consented  to  send  five  of  his 
missionaries  to  that  field  in  order  that  the  labors  of  those 
zealous  workers  should  not  be  lost  entirely.  He  foresaw 
that  the  taking  over  of  this  field  would  entail  many  sacri¬ 
fices,  but  he  accepted  the  burden  looking  only  to  the 
welfare  of  the  Church.  And  God  looked  upon  his  good 
will  and  blessed  the  fields  entrusted  to  him.  Thus,  for 
instance,  the  high  school  at  Ranchi  was  enlarged;  a  new 
school  was  completed  in  October  1914;  a  hostel  for  stu¬ 
dents  was  erected  in  1916;  and  a  school  for  domestic 
economy  was  opened  at  Haflong.  These  achievements  were 


WORLD  WAR  AND  SUBSEQUENT  EVENTS  177 

due  in  great  part  to  the  able  Jesuit,  Fr.  Vander  Schueren. 
In  order  to  raise  money  he  arranged  bazaars  and  motion 
picture  shows  which  were  well  attended.  He  also  trav¬ 
eled  to  England  and  Australia  where  he  interested  the 
Catholic  population  in  the  needy  missions  and  received 
generous  alms. 

The  Missions  of  Bombay  and  Poona. — In  Bombay  and 
Poona  the  future  of  the  missions  became  precarious.  Of 
the  original  missionary  personnel  of  165  there  remained 
at  the  end  of  1915  only  sixty-two.  The  Most  Rev.  Herman 
Juergens,  S.  J.,  Archbishop  of  Bombay,  did  all  in  his 
power  to  save  the  missions  from  ruin.  He  appealed  to 
the  bishops  of  India,  to  England  and  even  to  America. 
The  bishops  of  India  responded  generously  and  supplied 
some  thirty  priests;  the  German  Province  of  Jesuits  gave 
five  priests  of  non-German  nationality ;  the  English  Prov¬ 
ince  sent  its  quota  including  the  Rev.  Alban  Goodier,  who 
was  placed  in  charge  of  St.  Xavier’s  College  and  after  the 
war  was  made  Archbishop  of  Bombay.  The  American 
Province  sent  eight  Fathers  and  two  scholastics.  By  this 
procedure  these  missions  were  saved  from  almost  total 
ruin.  But  we  must  remember,  the  new  forces  could  not 
begin  where  the  old  ones  left  off.  Some  could  speak  neither 
the  English  nor  the  native  tongues.  Others  were  not 
accustomed  to  the  climate.  The  financial  question,  too, 
worried  them.  Although  the  Government  showed  itself 
more  generous  than  before  the  war,  still  the  missionaries 
had  to  struggle  to  make  ends  meet.  The  faithful  must 
be  commended  for  their  good  will.  They  saw  the  dis¬ 
tress  of  their  spiritual  directors  and,  although  mostly  of 
the  poorer  class  and  heavily  taxed,  still  they  contributed 
Rs.  18,000  for  the  missions  in  one  year.  The  great  calam¬ 
ity  which  had  befallen  these  missions  was  too  heavy  a 
burden  for  the  aged  shoulders  of  the  beloved  Archbishop, 
the  Most  Rev.  Herman  Juergens,  S.  J.,  and  he  succumbed 
to  its  weight,  breathing  forth  his  soul  to  his  Maker  on 
September  28,  1916. 


178 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


The  Mission  Field  of  Bettiah. — After  the  expulsion  of 
the  Tyrolese  Capuchins  from  Bettiah  it  is  held  “on  good 
authority”  that  the  Indian  Government  “offered  the  mis¬ 
sion  with  all  its  property  to  the  American  Methodists.”  1 
But  the  neighboring  Capuchins  saved  the  situation  by 
offering  their  services.  Capuchins  were  sent  to  the  rescue 
from  Allahabad,  Agra  and  Ajmer,  and  the  Very  Bev.  Fr. 
Felix  Finch,  a  Belgian  Capuchin  of  the  Lahore  mission, 
was  appointed  administrator  of  the  prefecture.  Upon  his 
arrival  in  January  1916  he  found  the  mission  of  Bettiah 
in  a  lamentable  condition.  The  new  priests  were  young 
and  without  experience.  The  native  priests  (seven  in 
number)  and  the  Italian  Capuchins  lacked  mutual  con¬ 
fidence.  The  Christians  received  their  own  clergy  with 
coldness.  The  able  administrator  at  once  set  about  to  con¬ 
ciliate  his  priests,  and  then  to  study  carefully  the  condi¬ 
tions  of  the  various  stations  of  the  mission.  He  found 
nothing  but  poverty  and  misery.  What  was  to  be  done? 
His  knowledge  of  economics  was  of  assistance  to  him.  He 
himself  wrote:  “Discovering  at  the  very  outset  that  the 
Christians  depend  almost  wholly  for  their  support  on  the 
aid  given  by  the  mission,  I  established,  with  the  aid  of 
the  Government,  Mutual  Benefit  Societies.  These  exist 
in  all  the  centers  and,  instead  of  coming  to  the  priests  for 
help,  the  faithful  obtain  the  small  sums  necessary  to  carry 
on  their  farms  and  other  ventures  from  the  Society.  .  .  . 
The  Christians  no  longer  solicit  aid  at  the  missions,  and 
they  are  contented  because  they  are  independent  and  self- 
supporting.  The  change  in  the  condition  of  the  communi¬ 
ties  since  the  introduction  of  this  system  is  incredible.”  2 
The  Very  Bev.  Felix  Finck  also  opened  two  technical 
schools  at  Bettiah  and  the  good  attendance  shows  that  his 
work  was  appreciated  by  the  people.  Toward  the  end 
this  Father  tended  to  the  whole  mission  with  his  seven 

1  The  Franciscan  Annals  of  India,  Agra,  June  1920,  p.  189. 

2  Catholic  Missions,  N.  Y.,  Vol.  VIII,  1919,  p.  231. 


WORLD  WAR  AND  SUBSEQUENT  EVENTS  179 

secular  native  priests,  all  his  confreres  having  gone  hack 
to  Lahore  on  account  of  sickness. 

All  Missions  of  the  Empire  Suffered  by  the  War. — 
These  mission  fields,  although  most  afflicted,  were  not  the 
only  ones  in  which  the  effects  of  war  were  felt.  The 
Dioceses  of  Pondicherry,  Kumbakonam,  Mysore  and  Co¬ 
imbatore,  all  in  charge  of  the  Paris  Foreign  Mission 
Seminary,  by  the  end  of  1916  had  lost  fifty  of  their 
priests  who  were  called  to  their  country’s  colors.  In  addi¬ 
tion  to  this  misfortune  a  terrific  cyclone  destroyed  many 
human  lives  and  much  mission  property  at  Pondicherry. 
A  number  of  missionaries  of  the  Diocese  of  Nagpur  were 
either  interned  or  recalled  to  Europe.  Seven  stations  had 
been  kept  up  by  alms  from  Germany.  These  naturally 
ceased  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war.  The  bishop  was  doing 
his  best  to  save  these  missions  but  towards  the  end  of  the 
war  the  task  was  almost  hopeless.  Verapoly  also  suffered, 
as  we  can  see  from  a  letter  of  Fr.  Bonaventure,  0.  C.  D. : 
“Our  distress/’  he  wrote,  “is  such  that,  if  our  good  Amer¬ 
ican  friends  do  not  come  to  the  rescue,  we  must  suspend 
all  missionary  activity.”  The  Capuchin  mission  fields  of 
the  north  were  also  affected.  They  gave  to  the  needy 
mission  fields  of  Bettiah  as  many  of  their  staff  as  they 
could  possibly  spare.  These  fields  comprise  the  poorest  of 
India’s  inhabitants.  They  are  almost  entirely  dependent 
on  foreign  help,  and  this  help  was  greatly  diminished 
during  the  war.  Bev.  Pius  Lyons,  O.  M.  Cap.,  “finds  the 
most  absolute  Franciscan  poverty  in  the  field  of  Simla.” 
And  in  Ajmer,  Fr.  Simon,  0.  M.  Cap.,  lived  at  the  close 
of  the  war  on  twelve  cents  a  day  so  that  he  might  carry 
on  bis  work  for  the  salvation  of  souls.  A  Sister  wrote  froni 
the  same  mission:  “Poor  harvests,  added  to  war  condi¬ 
tions,  bring  starvation  very  close.”  To  these  hardships 
caused  by  the  war  were  added  the  influenza,  cholera  and 
famine  which  ravaged  India  in  1918.  It  was,  perhaps, 
the  greatest  scourge  India  has  ever  had.  It  counted  its 


180 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


victims  not  by  the  thousands  but  actually  by  the  millions. 
Physicians  were  all  too  few  and  medicines  could  not  be 
supplied.  Had  there  existed  at  the  time  a  well-developed 
system  of  medical  missions  throughout  the  land,  many 
precious  lives  could  undoubtedly  have  been  saved. 

The  Missions  and  the  Peace  Conference. — The  war  at 
an  end,  the  British  Government,  to  say  the  least,  could 
have  been  expected  to  permit  the  deported  missionaries 
to  return  to  their  field  of  labor.  The  diplomats  of  Great 
Britain,  however,  thought  otherwise,  and  not  only  refused 
the  German  missionaries  passage  to  India,  but  even  de¬ 
ported  the  majority  of  those  who  were  still  held  in  the  con¬ 
centration  camps.  Provision  for  this  action  of  Great 
Britain  was  even  made  in  the  Treaty  of  Peace.  Articles 
122  and  438  of  the  Versailles  Treaty  affected  the  mis¬ 
sions  and  they  were  looked  upon  not  only  as  an  injustice 
towards  individuals,  but  also,  as  the  Osservatore  Romano 
remarked,  as  an  infringement  on  the  inalienable  rights  of 
the  Church  to  choose  and  send  forth  the  messengers  of 
the  Gospel.  The  late  Pope  Benedict  XV.  at  first  deplored 
the  difficulties  imposed  on  Catholic  missions  by  the  execu¬ 
tion  of  the  said  Treaty.  He  protested  repeatedly  against 
the  action  of  the  Peace  Conference.  But  obtaining  very 
meager  results,  he,  as  the  Vicar  of  Christ  upon  earth, 
fearlessly  denounced  the  painful  condition  holding  that, 
in  the  interest  of  religion,  civilization  and  humanity,  the 
Catholic  missions  should  not  be  molested.  Holland,  Spain 
and  Switzerland  also  gave  free  expression  to  their  feelings 
of  indignation  regarding  these  articles  of  the  Treaty.  The 
Catholics  of  the  Allied  and  Associated  Powers  did  like¬ 
wise,  not  excepting  those  of  our  own  country.  In  the 
summer  of  1920  another  attempt  was  made  by  Bt.  Rev. 
Mgr.  Kelley  of  Chicago,  President  of  the  Catholic  Church 
Extension  Society,  to  have  these  articles  of  the  Treaty 
changed.  He  journeyed  to  Rome  and  was  empowered  by 
the  Vatican  to  deal  officially  in  his  negotiations  with  the 
British  Government.  In  London  he  offered  a  plan  to  the 


WORLD  WAR  AND  SUBSEQUENT  EVENTS  181 


British  officials  which  received  consideration,  and  which 
has  removed  most  of  the  restrictions  against  missionaries 
of  non-British  nationality. 

Help  for  the  Missions. — While  these  difficulties  were 
being  solved  the  Holy  See  deemed  it  advisable  to  make 
some  provision  for  the  mission  fields  of  India.  She  en¬ 
trusted  the  missions  of  Bombay  and  Poona  to  the  American 
Jesuits  of  the  Maryland-New  York  Province.  Twenty- 
seven  members  of  the  Society  were  willing  to  go  to  their 
field  of  trust,  hut  as  they  were  unable  to  procure  the  neces¬ 
sary  passports  from  the  British  Government,  the  Holy  See 
entrusted  the  missions  of  Bombay  and  Poona  to  the  Jesuits 
of  the  Aragon  Province  of  Spain.  In  September  1919  the 
new  Diocese  of  Patna  was  formed.  It  comprises  the  for¬ 
mer  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Bettiah  and  Nepal  and  the 
eastern,  the  most  flourishing  part  of  the  Diocese  of  Alla¬ 
habad.  The  episcopal  seat  of  the  new  diocese  is  at  Banka- 
pur.  This  field  was  given  to  the  Missouri  Province  of 
American  Jesuits.  After  waiting  almost  a  year  for  the 
passports  the  first  of  these  Jesuits,  Fathers  Anderson, 
Milet,  Kelly,  Troy  and  Eline  left  America  in  January 
1921  for  the  new  field  in  India.  Assam  was  administered 
by  the  Most  Bev.  Brice  Meuleman,  S.  J.,  Archbishop  of 
Calcutta,  until  1921  when  the  Holy  See  entrusted  the 
prefecture  apostolic  to  the  Salesians  of  Don  Bosco.  The 
large  Diocese  of  Trichinopoly  was  divided  and  the  new 
diocese  (the  southern  portion),  upon  the  suggestion  of 
the  Apostolic  Delegate,  Mgr.  Pisani,  is  served  by  native 
priests  under  a  native  bishop. 

Stir  in  Dacca. — A  new  era  opened  for  the  Bengal  mis¬ 
sion  of  Dacca,  which  is  in  charge  of  the  Congregation  of 
the  Holy  Cross.  The  latest  General  Chapter  of  the  Con¬ 
gregation  held  at  Notre  Dame,  Indiana,  from  August  12 
to  23,  1920,  decided  to  add  to  the  missionary  staff  in  India 
eight  new  volunteers  from  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
A  building  program  was  also  adopted  which  calls  for  “a 
preparatory  seminary  in  the  United  States  for  boys  with 


182 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


missionary  vocations,  another  seminary  in  Dacca  for  the 
native  Bengalese  youth,  and  a  sanatorium  where  the  in¬ 
capacitated  missionaries  may  regain  their  health.”  3 
Since  this  Chapter  the  Holy  Cross  Fathers  in  our  country 
have  been  laying  plans  to  open  a  mission  seminary  at 
Washington,  D.  C.  These  facts  predict  a  bright  future 
for  the  mission  field  of  Dacca. 

Meeting  of  South  Indian  Bishops. — Although  ham¬ 
pered  on  all  sides  during  the  war  the  bishops  of  India, 
nevertheless,  devised  new  means  of  progress.  Thus  to¬ 
ward  the  end  of  January  1917  on  the  occasion  of  the 
consecration  of  the  new  Bishop  of  Mysore,  eight  South 
Indian  bishops  met  in  conference  at  Bangalore  and  passed 
among  others  the  following  resolutions:  (1)  The  Marian 
Congress  which  was  to  be  held  toward  the  close  of  1914 
at  Trichinopoly,  shall  be  held  at  the  end  of  1918;  (2)  for 
the  purpose  of  distributing  apologetic  writings  a  society 
on  the  plan  of  the  English  Truth  Society  shall  be  intro¬ 
duced  into  the  Madras  Presidency;  (3)  the  confederation 
of  Catholic  Societies  shall  be  encouraged;  (4)  a  Catholic 
daily  shall  be  brought  into  existence.  That  the  resolutions 
of  the  South  Indian  bishops  did  not  remain  ineffective 
goes  without  saying.  Before  the  close  of  1920  the  Eastern 
Mail ,  which  was  intended  to  be  the  first  English  Catholic 
Daily  Paper  of  India,  was  given  to  the  public,  and  the 
Indian  Catholic  Truth  Society  was  established  on  a  firm 
basis. 

Catholic  Confederation. — At  the  same  time  great 
efforts  were  being  made  for  a  Catholic  Confederation  of 
all  India,  Burma,  Ceylon  and  Malaya.  Its  development 
had  been  (1921)  in  the  hands  of  a  provisional  committee 
with  headquarters  at  Lahore.  This  action  on  the  part  of 
the  Catholics  of  India  had  become  a  necessity  in  view  of 
the  reform  schemes  of  the  Native  States.  Colonel  P. 
O’Gorman,  President  of  the  Catholic  Association  of  the 
Allahabad  Diocese,  showed  its  urgent  necessity  when  he 

3  The  Bengalese,  Washington,  D.  C.,  Vol.  II,  1920,  p.  19. 


WORLD  WAR  AND  SUBSEQUENT  EVENTS  183 


said:  “The  threatened  Cochin  Christian  Civil  Marriage 
Bill  with  encouragement  of  rebellion  against  ecclesiastical 
authority,  the  introduction  of  legalized  concubinage  and 
illegitimacy  of  offspring,  with  separations,  divorces,  and 
disruption  of  family  ties  and  social  demoralization  in  its 
train,  are  but  other  writings  on  the  wall  which  clearly 
point  to  what  Christianity  and  especially  Catholicity  have 
to  expect  in  the  not  very  distant  future.  .  .  .  But  if  we 
(Catholics)  have  a  firmly  united,  never-failing  body  to 
give  expression  to  our  opinions,  be  sure  we  shall  present 
such  a  formidable  front  that  there  will  be  no  mistake  any¬ 
where,  and  our  adversaries  will  think  twice  before  assail¬ 
ing  a  phalanx  so  organized.”  4 

The  Marian  Congress. — In  January  1914  the  members 
of  the  Sodality  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  at  Trichinopoly 
originated  the  plan  of  holding  a  congress  of  all  Marian 
Sodalities  of  India,  Burma  and  Ceylon  in  order  to  extend 
the  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary.  This  congress 
was  to  meet  at  Trichinopoly  during  the  Christmas  season 
of  1914.  Although  this  was  made  impossible  by  the  out¬ 
break  of  the  war  still  the  idea  of  the  congress  which  had 
taken  such  deep  root  in  the  minds  of  the  people  could  not 
die.  It  slept  in  peaceful  slumber  during  those  terrible 
years  of  the  war  only  to  awaken  at  the  dawn  of  peace  with 
renewed  strength.  A  new  plan,  however,  was  now  adopted. 
The  Marian  Congress  was  to  be  held  not  only  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  promoting  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  but  also 
of  deliberating  “on  the  most  important  problems  affecting 
the  growth  and  interests  of  the  Catholic  Church”  in  India. 
Since  the  congress  was  now  to  be  held  on  such  a  com¬ 
prehensive  basis  it  was  deemed  advisable  to  transfer  its 
seat  from  Trichinopoly  to  Madras. 

After  extensive  and  elaborate  preparations  under  the 
able  management  of  the  various  committees  the  Marian 
Congress  was  formally  opened  on  January  4,  1921,  by 
His  Excellency,  Mgr.  Pisani,  Apostolic  Delegate  to  India. 

*  Catholicvi ?,  Cawnpore,  India,  Vol.  VII,  1020,  pp.  283-284. 


184 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


Each  day  of  the  congress  opened  with  a  Pontifical  Mass 
and  closed  with  Benediction  services.  During  those  mem¬ 
orable  days  Madras  harbored  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of 
India,  Burma  and  Ceylon  who  came  to  show  their  love 
and  respect  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  and  her  Divine 
Son.  That  these  devoted  clients  of  the  Mother  of  God 
had  deeply  at  heart  the  welfare  of  the  Catholic  Church 
in  India  may  be  judged  from  the  various  subjects  treated 
at  the  congress.  The  more  important  of  these  were : 
Glories  of  Mary ;  the  Catholic  Home ;  Moral  Training  in 
School;  Federation  of  Sodalities;  the  Indian  Catholic 
Truth  Society;  Apostleship  of  Prayer;  Retreats;  the 
Teaching  of  Christian  Doctrine  and  the  Training  of 
Catechists;  Fostering  Sacerdotal  and  Religious  Vocations; 
Catholic  Dispensaries  and  Hospitals;  Mary  and  Hon- 
Catholics;  Propagation  of  the  Faith. 

The  Imposing  Ceremonies  of  the  Congress. — It  would 
lead  too  far  to  describe  the  impressing  ceremonies  of  the 
congress,  especially  at  its  solemn  close  on  January  6;  how 
those  long  lines  of  faithful  moved  slowly  in  procession 
through  the  streets  of  Madras  toward  the  congress  hall; 
how  the  island  opposite  the  city  was  illumined  by  thou¬ 
sands  of  electric  lights;  how  the  images  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  and  His  Holiness,  Pope  Benedict  XV.,  were 
flashed  against  the  sky  in  the  splendid  display  of  fire¬ 
works.  Truly  it  was  a  spectacle  the  like  of  which  had 
never  before  been  witnessed  in  the  East.  The  heathen 
viewed  it  with  amazement;  the  Christian  beheld  in  it  the 
force  of  unity;  whilst  the  Catholic  saw  in  it  the  glory  of 
his  Faith.  That  such  a  congress  which  aimed  at  Catholic 
solidarity  was  most  opportune  and  beneficial  to  the  Faith 
in  India  no  one  can  gainsay,  especially  if  one  considers 
the  fact  that  India  at  the  time  was  in  an  unsettled  political 
condition  and  was  putting  forth  a  united  effort  to  gain 
self-government. 

All-India ,  Burma  and  Ceylon  Bishops'  Conference'. — 
This  conference,  the  first  of  its  kind  in  India,  was  held 


Dignitaries  at  Marian  Congress. 


WORLD  WAR  AND  SUBSEQUENT  EVENTS  185 


at  San  Thome,  Mylapore,  January  7  to  10,  1921.  Upon 
the  hearty  approval  of  the  Holy  See,  it  was  convened 
promptly  after  the  Marian  Congress  at  Madras.  Almost 
every  archbishop  and  bishop  of  India,  Burma  and  Ceylon 
was  present  at  the  conference  and  those  who  could  not 
attend  personally  were  represented  by  their  vicars-gen- 
eral.  At  this  extraordinary  meeting  the  prelates  dis¬ 
cussed  the  most  important  and  urgent  questions  touching 
upon  the  general  welfare  of  the  Catholic  Church  and 
Catholic  life  in  India.  Such  a  consultation  regarding  the 
progress  of  Catholicity  in  India  and  the  common  under¬ 
standing  arrived  at  upon  these  questions  by  such  a  body 
of  eminent  ecclesiastics  cannot  but  produce  good  results 
for  the  future  of  Catholic  work  in  India. 

Upon  viewing  the  achievements  of  the  Catholic  Faith 
in  the  Orient,  some  may  be  inclined  to  think  that  India 
is  no  longer  in  need  of  our  help.  This,  however,  is  far 
from  the  truth.  In  spite  of  the  progress  of  Catholicism, 
India  still  remains  a  vast  mission  country  dependent  upon 
outside  help.  Over  316,000,000  natives  are  yet  enveloped 
in  the  darkness  of  error.  To  lead  these  millions  to  the 
light  of  the  Gospel  is  the  purpose  of  our  missionaries  in 
India. 


CHAPTER  VI 


PROTESTANT  MISSIONS 

First  Protestant  Missionaries. — Although  it  is  true  that 
Protestants  were  in  India  as  early  as  1596,  it  is  also 
equally  true  that  they  did  not  preach  their  religion  to  the 
natives  until  more  than  a  century  later.  The  year  1706 
marks  the  beginning  of  Protestant  missionary  activity  in 
India.  In  this  year  there  arrived  from  Denmark  two 
German  Lutheran  missionaries,  Bartholomew  Ziegenbalg 
and  Henry  Pluetschau,  sent  by  the  King  of  Denmark, 
who  immediately  began  their  work  of  converting  the 
pagans  at  Tranquebar.  The  beginning  was  difficult,  but 
as  time  went  on  they  established  new  stations  at  Madras, 
Cuddalore  and  Tan j ore.  Christian  Frederick  Schwartz, 
the  most  famous  of  early  Protestant  missionaries  in  India, 
not  only  continued  the  work  of  his  predecessors,  but  even 
extended  it  as  far  south  as  Tinnevelly.  Schwartz  arrived 
in  India  in  1750.  It  is  said  of  him  that  “he  had  strong 
religious  instincts,  and  apparently  a  moral  purity  far 
above  most  of  his  order.  What  he  knew,  or  thought  he 
knew  he  honestly  desired  to  impart  to  others.”  1  But  in 
spite  of  his  sincerity  he  did  not  attain  the  spiritual  suc¬ 
cess  he  had  expected.  He  himself  admitted  this  in  a 
letter  written  from  Tanjore  to  his  friend,  Chambers,  in 
England:  “I  wish,”  he  said,  “I  could  send  you  a  list  of 
real  converts.  .  .  .  But  alas !  how  rare  are  these !”  2 

The  Baptists. — The  Baptists  under  William  Carey  fol¬ 
lowed  the  Lutherans  to  India  in  1793.  Their  first  mission 

1  T.  W.  M.  Marshall,  Christian  Missions,  New  York,  1880,  Vol.  I, 

p.  282. 

3  Idem ,  p.  284. 


186 


PROTESTANT  MISSIONS 


187 


station  was  erected  at  Serampore  near  Calcutta,  where  they 
conducted  a  college  for  the  natives.  They  next  opened  a 
printing  establishment  at  Serampore  where  they  printed 
the  Bible  in  some  thirty  native  tongues.  That  the  early 
missionary  efforts  of  these  Baptists  produced  but  meager 
results  may  be  judged  from  the  words  of  a  Protestant 
writer  of  the  time.  “The  converts  made  by  the  Baptist 
mission,77  he  says,  “are  the  most  wretched  creatures  imag¬ 
inable.  Under  the  Baptist  system  all  is  dreary.  The 
convert  receives  the  word  only,  and  is  left  to  grope  his 
way  in  the  dark  over  obstacles  which  not  one  in  a  hundred 
surmounts.’7  3 

The  Church  of  England. — We  now  come  to  consider  the 
efforts  made  by  the  Anglican  Church  to  convert  India. 
Prior  to  1814  there  were  few  if  any  Anglican  mission¬ 
aries  in  India.  It  is  true  the  Church  of  England  had 
employed  German  Lutherans  and  Calvinists  to  act  as  her 
paid  representatives,  but  they  only  served  to  bring  igno¬ 
miny  upon  her.  The  Church  authorities,  therefore, 
thought  to  better  conditions  by  establishing  an  ecclesiasti¬ 
cal  authority  in  India,  and  accordingly  in  1814  sent  Dr. 
Thomas  Middleton  to  Calcutta  as  the  first  Anglican  arch¬ 
bishop  of  India  with  three  archdeacons  under  him.  This 
action  on  the  part  of  the  Church  of  England  drew  the 
attention  of  various  missionary  societies  towards  India. 
The  earliest  of  these  were  the  Anglican  Church  Missionary 
Society  (1814),  which  at  first  sent  mostly  German 
Lutherans  and  Calvinists  as  representatives  to  India,  and 
the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  (1826).  In 
1830  ten  Protestant  missionary  societies  with  106  stations 
and  147  agents  were  active  in  India.  Owing  to  these  and 
similar  societies  Protestant  missionary  activity  in  India 
began  to  flourish,  and  it  has  continued  to  do  so  even  to  the 
present  time.  New  diocbses  of  the  Indian  Church  were 
formed  at  Madras  (1835),  Bombay  (1837),  Lahore 
(1877),  Travancore  (1879),  Chota  Nagpur  (1890), 

*  Idem ,  p.  322. 


188 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


Lucknow  (1893),  Tinnevelly  (1896),  Nagpur  (1902), 
Dornakal  (1912)  and  Assam  (1915). 4 

Other  Denominations. — Besides  the  Anglicans,  Bap¬ 
tists  and  Lutherans  there  are  active  in  India  also  the 
Methodists,  Presbyterians,  Congregationalists  and  the 
Salvation  Army,  all  of  whom  have  strong  organizations. 

What  are  these  organizations  accomplishing  by  their 
presence  in  India  ?  Are  they  meeting  with  success  ?  To 
determine  these  questions  it  is  necessary  to  consider  their 
work. 

Protestant  Liberality. — That  Protestant  missionaries 
in  general  have  greater  resources  at  their  command  than 
Catholics  is  a  well-established  fact.  Thus,  for  instance, 
in  one  year  (1912)  no  less  than  thirty-eight  million  dol¬ 
lars  were  collected  for  Protestant  mission  work.  That 
India  is  the  happy  recipient  of  a  large  portion  of  these 
generous  alms  may  he  seen  from  the  various  educational 
and  philanthropic  institutions  conducted  by  Protestants  in 
that  country. 

Schools. — The  Protestant  school  system  in  India  is  of 
far-reaching  influence.  It  is  by  means  of  education  that 
the  missionaries  endeavor  to  influence  the  mind  of  the 
native,  who  thirsts  for  knowledge.  Especially  the  leading 
classes  are  reached  in  this  manner,  and  not  seldom  are  con¬ 
versions  due  solely  to  the  school.  It  is  the  custom  in 
strictly  denominational  institutions  of  learning  to  oblige 
the  pupils  without  exception  to  attend  the  Bible  classes. 
This  is  repugnant  to  the  native,  but  he  philosophizes :  “no 
Bible — no  logic,”  and  so  he  submits  to  the  demands  of 
his  tutors.  As  said  above,  conversions  may  often  be  traced 
to  the  schools,  and  when  a  teacher  sees  a  talented  pupil 
among  the  converts  he  tries  to  influence  him  to  become 
a  teacher,  a  catechist  or  some  other  missionary  agent. 

The  Protestants  have  colleges  all  over  India,  the  best 
attended  of  which  are  the  S.  P.  G.  (Society  for  the  Propa¬ 
gation  of  the  Gospel)  College  at  Trichinopoly  with  2,027 

*  Indian  Church  Directory ,  Calcutta,  1918,  .p.  32. 


PROTESTANT  MISSIONS 


189 


scholars;  the  Scottish  Churches  College  at  Calcutta  with 
1,102  scholars;  and  the  Wilson  College  at  Bombay  with 
984  scholars.  Besides  these,  the  various  denominations 
conduct  more  than  200  high  schools  and  almost  100  indus¬ 
trial  schools.  In  the  latter  the  pupils  are  taught  a  trade 
such  as  carpentry,  blacksmithing,  gardening,  tailoring, 
tanning,  shoemaking,  stone-cutting,  rope-making,  printing, 
weaving,  embroidering  and  many  other  useful  occupa¬ 
tions.5 

Philanthropic  Institutions. — Of  not  less  importance  are 
the  charitable  institutions  conducted  by  Protestant  or¬ 
ganizations.  Dispensaries  are  connected  with  many  of 
the  mission  stations  where  the  natives  receive  medicines 
either  free  of  charge  or  for  a  nominal  sum.  Well-equipped 
hospitals  are  also  quite  numerous.  The  value  of  these  in¬ 
stitutions  cannot  be  overestimated.  “A  Hospital/’  as  Dr. 
Margaret  Lamont  remarks,  “is  a  ready-made  congrega¬ 
tion  ;  there  is  no  need  to  go  into  the  highways  and  hedges 
and  compel  them  To  come  in.’  They  send  each  other, 
one  who  has  been  helped  telling  her  friends.  The  crowds 
in  the  waiting  room  have  time  to  hear  what  a  native  nun 
or  a  Protestant  Bible-woman  has  to  say  about  the  Religion 
of  Jesus  Christ.  The  Protestants  indeed  make  use  of  this 
opportunity”  6  to  spread  their  doctrines  to  the  most  re¬ 
mote  villages  and  hamlets. 

It  is  especially  in  medical  work  where  women  helpers 
are  much  in  demand.  “The  best  way  of  reaching  pagan 
women  is  through  doctors  of  their  own  sex,  and  it  is  abso¬ 
lutely  the  only  way  of  reaching  the  secluded  Mohammedan 
women.  Even  native  Christians  think  it  much  more  be¬ 
coming  for  women  to  be  ministered  to  by  other  women.”  7 
Protestants  have  taken  steps  to  satisfy  this  demand  by 
establishing  the  Women’s  Christian  Medical  College  at 

6  Protestant  Missionary  Directory ,  Ajmer,  1920,  pp.  167-177. 

6  Margaret  Lamont,  M.D.,  Twenty  Years’  Medical  Work  in  Mis¬ 
sion  Countries,  Shanghai,  1918,  p.  34. 

7  Margaret  Lamont,  M.D.,  Lives  of  Women  Doctors  (Leaflets). 


190 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


Ludhiana  in  North  India.  Its  sole  object  is  to  train  doc¬ 
tors,  compounders,  nurses  and  midwives  for  missionary 
work  in  India.  What  great  work  this  college  is  doing  for 
the  women  of  India  may  be  seen  from  its  report  for  1919. 
During  the  twenty-five  years  of  its  existence  it  had  turned 
out  sixty-one  Indian  women  doctors,  forty-eight  certificated 
compounders,  fifty-three  nurses  and  186  certificated  mid¬ 
wives.8  It  was  of  this  college  that  Mgr.  Biondi,  the 
sometime  Apostolic  Delegate  to  India,  said  it  was  doing 
excellent  work  and  wished  it  were  Catholic. 

Homes  for  the  Blind  and  Deaf-Mutes. — Beside  hospitals 
and  dispensaries  the  Protestants  also  conduct  a  limited 
number  of  homes  for  the  blind  and  deaf-mutes.  The 
schools  for  the  blind  at  Palamcottah  are  much  appreciated. 
The  inmates  receive  a  common  school  education  and,  be¬ 
sides,  the  girls  are  taught  basket  making,  tanning,  bead 
works  and  tape  weaving,  knitting,  etc.,  and  the  boys  are 
instructed  in  cotton  weaving,  chair  caning,  mat  weaving, 
etc.  The  boys  are  able  to  weave  their  own  clothes.  The 
institution  numbers  144  inmates.  Both  at  Palamcottah 
and  Madras  are  orphanages  for  deaf-mutes  under  Protes¬ 
tant  auspices,  and  they  harbor  children  from  all  parts 
of  India. 

Leper  Asylums. — Of  all  countries  in  the  East  in  which 
leprosy  is  prevalent  India  has,  perhaps,  the  greatest  quota. 
Almost  a  million  of  India’s  inhabitants  are  afflicted  with 
this  dreadful  disease.  To  alleviate  the  sufferings  of  these 
victims  is  the  object  of  the  interdenominational  society, 
The  Mission  to  Lepers.  This  society  has  in  India  alone, 
which  is  its  main  field  of  labor,  forty-two  asylums  caring 
for  7,165  lepers.9 

The  Press. — It  is  an  old  saying  that  “the  pen  is  mightier 
than  the  sword.”  Protestants  were  imbued  with  this  truth 
from  the  very  beginning  of  their  activity  in  India  and  it 
was  always  their  aim  to  establish  as  many  printing  presses 

8  Ibidem. 

9  Protestant  Missionary  Directory,  Ajmer,  1920,  p.  125. 


PROTESTANT  MISSIONS 


191 


as  possible.  According  to  the  Protestant  Missionary  Di¬ 
rectory  for  1920—1921  there  are  no  less  than  thirty-three 
such  presses  in  India  printing  more  than  120  publications 
in  the  principal  languages  and  dialects.  By  means  of  the 
Press  Protestants  carry  on  extensive  Christian  propa¬ 
ganda.  Thousands  of  bibles  are  thus  printed  in  the  differ¬ 
ent  languages  and  circulated  annually  among  the  natives 
of  all  parts  of  India  by  the  British  and  Poreign  Bible  So¬ 
ciety.  This  society  has  auxiliary  establishments  at  Ban¬ 
galore,  Bombay,  Calcutta,  Madras,  North  India  and  the 
Punjab.  But  Protestants  in  India  are  also  guilty  of  a 
gross  misuse  of  the  Press,  employing  it  often  as  a  means 
to  arouse  anti-Catholic  feeling.  Leaflets  and  tracts  appear, 
sometimes  anonymously,  which  represent  the  Church  of 
Pome  as  “narrow,  ignorant,  idolatrous,  corrupt,  tyranni¬ 
cal,  full  of  errors,  superstitions  and  scandals.”  The  Press 
is  a  powerful  factor  in  creating  public  opinion  and  con¬ 
sequently  such  unscrupulous  Protestant  mission  agents 
are  doing  untold  harm  to  the  Catholic  mission  cause  in 
India. 

Direct  Evangelistic  Work. — So  far  we  have  considered 
the  auxiliary  means  employed  by  Protestants  in  convert¬ 
ing  India’s  natives.  Besides  these  they  also  make  use  of 
the  purely  evangelistic  method.  For  instance,  in  Madura 
the  S.  P.  G.  Evangelistic  Mission  Band  preaches  the 
Gospel  to  the  villagers  in  the  vicinity  of  the  place  in 
which  it  happens  to  be  camping.  Although  the  work  of 
this  mission  band  has  decreased  during  the  past  few  years 
it  is  nevertheless  still  active,  and  is  now  aiming  rather 
at  intensive  than  at  extensive  evangelization.  In  the 
Punjab  the  village  workers  are  vigorously  engaged  in 
convert-making.  This  work  is  not  always  an  easy  task 
and  it  often  requires  much  patience.  Sometimes  the  vil¬ 
lagers  “sit  through  a  whole  lesson,”  as  one  of  the  workers 
expressed  it,  “exhibiting  about  as  much  interest  as  a  block 
of  wood.”  The  catechist  instructs  the  men  and  the  boys 
in  the  faith  while  his  wife  or  a  Bible- woman  does  the 


192 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


■0 


same  for  women,  entering  their  zenanas* and  mostly  always 
receiving  a  friendly  reception.  These  Protestant  workers 
are  active  all  over  India  and  they  are  gaining  in  popu¬ 
larity. 

Sunday  Schools . — Protestants  in  their  evangelistic 
work  give  much  attention  to  the  children.  They  realize 
that  the  children  of  to-day  are  the  men  and  women  of 
to-morrow,  and  by  working  among  the  children  they  aim 
at  insuring  their  respective  creeds  for  the  future.  This 
they  strive  to  attain  by  their  Sunday  schools.  In  these 
the  Bible  is  read  with  the  children  and  the  peculiar  doc¬ 
trines  of  one  of  the  sects  impressed  on  their  plastic  minds. 
The  Protestants  lay  much  stress  on  Sunday  schools  and 
in  order  to  make  the  system  as  efficient  as  possible  the 
churches  of  all  India  banded  together  and  formed  the 
“India  Sunday  School  Union.”  The  object  of  this  union 
is  not  so  much  to  exercise  authority  over  any  particular 
Sunday  school,  but  it  is  rather  to  aid  Sunday  school 
teachers  by  way  of  suggestion  to  obtain  better  results  in 
their  work. 

Evangelization  by  Hymns. — Of  the  evangelistic  methods 
that  of  hymns  is  not  the  least  employed  among  Protestant 
mission  workers  in  India.  “Their  method  is,  as  a  rule, 
to  call  attention  to  themselves  by  singing.  The  tunes  are 
sometimes  native,  sometimes  English.  The  words  tend  to 
be  very  simple,  to  repeat  themselves  often,  and  to  teach 
some  elementary  Christian  truths.  Protestants  generally 
are  learning  by  experience,  and  very  largely  are  coming 
back,  sometimes  quite  unconsciously,  to  very  old,  well- 
tried  Catholic  methods.  .  .  .  The  best  Protestant  hymns 
on  the  missions  now  avoid  the  purely  sentimental,  or 
purely  theological,  and  dwell  on  the  actual  life  of  our 
Lord.”  10  The  following  hymn  on  the  Passion  may  serve 
as  an  example: 

10  From  a  private  communication  of  Dr.  Margaret  Lamont,  June 
23,  1921,  Entebbe,  Uganda,  British  East  Africa. 


PROTESTANT  MISSIONS 


193 


There  is  a  green  field  far  away. 

Outside  a  city  wall, 

Where  the  dear  Lord  was  crucified 
Who  died  to  save  us  all. 

We  may  not  know,  we  cannot  tell 
What  pains  He  had  to  bear, 

But  we  believe  it  was  for  us 
He  hung  and  suffered  there. 

He  died  that  we  might  be  forgiven, 

He  died  to  make  'us  good, 

That  we  might  go  at  last  to  Heaven, 

Saved  by  His  Precious  Blood. 

There  was  no  other  good  enough 
To  pay  the  price  of  sin. 

He  only  could  unlock  the  gates 
Of  Heaven  and  let  us  in. 

Oh,  dearly,  dearly  has  He  loved! 

And  we  must  love  Him  too. 

And  trust  in  His  Redeeming  Blood, 

And  try  His  works  to  do. 

Hymns  of  this  character  which  contain  elementary 
truths  of  the  Christian  Faith  are  used  by  Protestants  not 
only  in  the  schools  but  even  in  the  open  streets.  The 
Indian  loves  singing  and  he  is  often  heard  long  after  re¬ 
peating  the  hymns  he  has  thus  picked  up  on  the  street. 
In  hospitals,  too,  hymns  are  much  In  vogue.  By  this 
method  Christian  truths  are  implanted  in  the  minds  of 
the  natives,  without  their  realizing  it,  and  thus  the  way 
is  prepared  for  their  conversion. 

Evangelization  in  Hospitals. — A  hospital  in  India,  as 
we  have  noted  above,  “is  a  ready-made  congregation.”  It 
is  so  for  Catholics  and  for  Protestants  as  well.  Dr.  Mar¬ 
garet  Lamont  describes  Protestant  Evangelistic  work  in 
hospitals  as  follows:  “Besides  hymns,  prayers  in  wards, 
students’  rooms  or  an  oratory  are  the  rule  at  least  twice 
a  day.  These  prayers  are  in  the  vernacular  and  very 
distinctly  and  loudly  said.  A  form  is  often  followed,  par¬ 
ticularly  by  the  Anglicans.  A  short  reading  from  Holy 
Scripture  (usually  the  Gospels)  form  an  invariable  part 
of  these  prayers,  as  the  Chapter  does  of  the  Divine  Office. 


-9 


194  INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 

...  We  should  remember  that  the  Reformation  Sects 
took  inevitably  a  great  deal  of  Catholic  truth  and  practice 
away  with  them.  Many,  especially  in  Anglican  and  Pres¬ 
byterian  Churches,  read  Holy  Scripture  in  a  very  Bene¬ 
dictine  fashion  to  this  day.  The  Presbyterians  do  not 
usually  have  a  calendar  and  set  passages,  but  the  minister 
or  in  the  case  of  a  lay  missionary,  his  deputy,  whether 
teacher,  doctor  or  nurse  (what  are  all  of  these  but  lay 
catechists  of  a  professional  standing  and  culture?) — these 
are  supposed  to  have  (and  often  have)  such  a  knowledge 
of  Holy  Scripture  as  to  be  able  to  turn  very  rapidly  from 
one  passage  to  a  cognate  and  illustrative  passage.  Thus  the 
conductor  of  prayers  will  give  out  a  hymn,  say,  on  the 
theme  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  with  usually  a  large  picture 
on  an  easel  as  illustration,  and  perhaps  a  blackboard  at 
hand  on  which  to  write  a  few  notes,  always  in  the  ver¬ 
nacular;  he  or  she  will  then  read  a  verse  from  Isaiah 
saying  that  God  will  feed  His  flock  like  a  shepherd  and 
gently  lead  those  that  are  with  young,  and  then  turn  to 
our  Lord’s  own  words  about  Himself  in  St.  John  10.  The 
blackboard  may  bear  at  the  end,  the  words : 

Hymn — The  Lord's  my  Shepherd,  or  The  King  of 
Love  my  Shepherd  is,  or  J esus  is  our  Shepherd,  etc. 

Texts — Isaiah — St.  John  10 — 

Motto  of  the  Day — 

(1)  To  follow  Jesus  to-day  as  our  Shepherd. 

(2)  To  try  and  gather  in  his  stray  sheep, 

i.  by  word, 

ii.  by  example, 

iii.  by  kindness, 

iv.  by  intercessory  prayer  for  them. 

The  blackboard  and  the  picture  may  be  left  in  the  ward 
or  nurses’  or  students’  classroom  as  a  reminder  all  day  of 
the  lesson. 

“A  similar  service  takes  place  at  night.  At  times,  the 


PROTESTANT  MISSIONS 


195 


pastor  himself  calls  or  conducts  it,  at  least  in  the  hospitals 
for  men.  If  the  doctors  are  too  busy,  the  nurses  take  it. 

“Very  often  before  an  operation  or  before  opening  the 
out-patient  dispensary,  special  earnest  prayers  are  offered 
in  the  oratory,  or  even  in  the  anesthetic  room  or  doctor’s 
room  for  the  patients.  If  an  operation  case,  this  im¬ 
presses  pagan  servants  or  pagan  pupil  nurses  or  students 
very  much  and  also  the  relatives.  Earnest  prayer  in  lan¬ 
guage  they  understand  is  followed  very  often  by  a  cure 
to  them  marvelous.  They  very  naturally  attribute  the  one 
to  the  other.”  11 

Hospitals,  therefore,  feature  largely  in  the  evangelistic 
work  conducted  by  Protestants  in  India,  in  fact  in  all 
mission  countries.  They  relieve  the  bodily  pains  of  the 
natives  and  thereby  also  touch  their  souls.  Nor  is  this 
propaganda  restricted  to  the  hospitals.  Similar  methods 
are  employed  in  the  out-patient  department. 

Evangelization  Work  of  the  Bihle-W omen. — Owing  to 
the  crowds,  the  out-patients  often  have  a  long  and  dreary 
wait  before  they  are  admitted  to  the  doctor.  Protestants 
grasp  this  opportunity  to  bring  home  to  these  bodily  sick 
by  means  of  a  Bible-woman,  some  elementary  Christian 
truths.  The  Bible-woman,  indeed,  is  a  great  factor  in 
convert-making,  not  only  in  the  out-patient  department, 
but  also  in  the  hospital  itself.  To  realize  her  position  we 
again  quote  from  Dr.  Margaret  Lamont’s  communication. 
“Her  method,  i.e.,  the  Bible-woman’s,  is  her  own.  She 
may  enter  into  talk  with  the  patient  about  her  illness,  and 
her  home,  or  about  the  hospital,  especially  the  doctors,  who 
(it  must  be  remembered)  are  quite  heroines  in  their  own 
hospitals,  and  dearly  beloved.  She  takes  occasion  of  any 
opportunity  to  enlighten  the  darkness  of  her  hearer’s  mind. 
Thus  for  example,  a  patient  may  say:  ‘Why  does  the 
white  lady  come  across  the  sea  and  leave  her  home  and 
do  all  this  hard  and  disagreeable  work  for  us,  which  so 
often  makes  her  ill  ?  We  might  do  as  much  if  we  knew 
11  Ibidem. 


196 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


how  but  it  would  only  be  for  our  own  mothers  or  daugh¬ 
ters.  She  does  it  for  the  poorest  without  regard,  is  up 
night  after  night,  is  interrupted  at  her  meals.  Why?’ 
If  then  the  Bible-woman  should  answer,  ‘she  does  it  for 
the  love  of  our  Lord  and  Savior  Jesus  Christ,’  the  effect  is 
often  great. 

“The  Bible-woman  visits  the  wards  every  afternoon, 
and  may  give  consecutive  readings  of  the  Gospels,  with 
explanations.  At  first  the  whole  Bible  was  used:  ex¬ 
perience  quickly  showed  that  even  the  Bible-woman  took 
years  until  she  was  properly  familiar  even  with  the  Gos¬ 
pels.  Now,  in  many  places,  a  regular  cycle  of  thirty 
lessons  is  given,  practically  the  mysteries  of  the  rosary 
(with  the  last  two,  which  so  rejoice  the  Oriental  mind 
left  out)  with  some  leading  miracles  of  our  Lord’s  and 
a  few  of  the  Apostles’,  besides  the  Creation  and  the  Fall. 

“As  to  the  out-patients,  they  often  have  a  weary  wait 
before  they  can  see  the  doctor  and  the  Protestants  utilize 
this  in  a  way  which,  in  my  experience,  few  Catholics  do, 
i.e.,  to  teach  elementary  Christian  truth.  If  one  of  the 
thirty  lessons  is  given  each  day,  a  woman  attending  daily 
or  even  bi-weekly  (for  in  these  countries  it  is  never  safe 
to  give  medicine  for  more  than  three  days,  and  wounds 
often  require  daily  dressing)  hears,  before  she  is  well, 
a  good  deal  of  the  life  of  our  Lord.  One  or  two  simple 
hymns  are  sung  and  repeated,  and  the  refrain  sung  again 
and  again  until  at  least  the  children  pick  it  up.” 

Direct  evangelistic  work  on  the  missions  is,  therefore, 
employed  more  frequently  by  Protestants  than  we  Cath¬ 
olics  are  sometimes  inclined  to  believe.  It  is  true,  street¬ 
preaching,  which  formerly  was  much  in  vogue  among 
Protestant  mission  workers,  has  now  been  abandoned  by 
all  denominations.  That,  however,  was  only  one  phase  of 
their  mission  work,  and  it  would,  therefore,  be  utterly  false 
to  claim  that  Protestants  are  neglecting  the  purely  evan¬ 
gelistic  methods. 

The  Missionary  Personnel . — The  extensive  missionary 


PROTESTANT  MISSIONS 


197 


labors  of  the  Protestants  are  conducted  primarily  by  the 
missionary  strictly  so  called.  The  wives  of  these  mis¬ 
sionaries  are  also  active  missionary  workers.  They  help 
in  the  schools,  attend  the  sick  and  instruct  native  helpers. 
To  these  may  be  added  a  large  number  of  lay  workers, 
both  men  and  women,  who  have  been  sent  to  India  by 
missionary  societies  to  help  in  the  schools,  in  the  hospitals, 
or  in  some  similar  way.  The  native  catechist  is  consid¬ 
ered  a  necessary  auxiliary  also  by  the  Protestants  and 
they  are  striving  to  increase  the  already  large  number. 
Connected  with  some  of  the  missionary  societies,  of  Ang¬ 
lican  persuasion,  active  in  India  are  religious  communi¬ 
ties  which  resemble  to  a  certain  extent  the  Catholic  Orders 
and  Sisterhoods.  They  live  the  common  life  in  poverty, 
chastity  and  obedience,  and  devote  themselves  entirely  to 
the  mission  cause.  These  communities  are  mostly  com¬ 
munities  of  women.  However,  there  exist  also  a  few  such 
communities  of  men  in  India,  the  most  noteworthy  of 
which  is  the  Oxford  Mission  to  Calcutta.  Its  members 
are  exclusively  alumni  of  Oxford  University.  They  wear 
a  cassock,  girdle  and  biretta,  say  “Mass”  and  preserve  the 
“Sacred  Species”  in  their  churches.  They  live  an  ascetic 
life  and  their  object  is  to  convert  the  educated  classes  of 
India.12 

The  Y.  M.  C.  A. — The  undenominational,  though 
nevertheless  Protestant  society,  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  has  gained 
a  firm  foothold  also  in  India.  Secretaries  of  this  society 
were  in  India  as  early  as  1892  where  they  settled  in  the 
larger  cities  and  drew  many  of  the  natives  into  their  ranks. 
They  are  meeting  with  ever  increasing  success  and  are  a 
great  help  to  the  Protestant  mission  cause.  The  Y.  M. 
C,  A.  in  India  has  127  centers  and  more  than  11,000 
members. 

The  Missionary's  Support. — As  stated  above  the  Protes¬ 
tants  have  a  large  capital  at  their  command.  But  how 
do  they  raise  the  huge  sums  ?  Is  it  inborn  with  the  Prot- 
u  Die  katholisichen  Missionen,  Freiburg,  Vol.  XXIX,  p.  179. 


198 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


estants  to  give?  Not  at  all.  The  success  of  Protestant 
missions  may  be  traced  to  such  leaders  as  John  Mott,  who 
in  the  last  century  was  the  greatest  promoter  of  the  war 
cry  “The  Evangelization  of  the  World  in  This  Genera¬ 
tion.”  He  it  was  who  continually  devised  new  plans  to 
awaken  home  interests  in  the  missions,  and  he  it  was  also 
who  gave  birth  to  the  Students’  Mission  Movement.  “If 
the  students  of  the  East,”  he  said,  “are  to  be  won  for  the 
Church,  it  must  be  done  by  the  students  of  the  West.” 
This  is  very  true.  The  people  of  Eastern  and  Southern 
Asia  are  a  comparatively  cultured  people  and  they  will  be 
reached  easiest  by  means  of  education.  Such  untiring 
efforts  of  the  missionary  leaders  at  home  are  therefore 
the  greatest  support  of  Protestant  missionaries  in  the 
field. 

Result  of  Protestant  Missionary  Work  in  India. — It  is 
evident  that  the  Protestants  are  using  all  means  in  their 
power  to  achieve  the  conversion  of  India.  They  are  an¬ 
nually  expending  large  sums  for  this  purpose.  Their 
missionaries  are  ever  active  in  the  schools,  in  the  hospitals 
and  in  the  highways,  and  yet  in  spite  of  their  industry 
their  endeavor  to  convert  India  is  an  “acknowledged 
failure.”  13  They  bring  no  conviction  to  the  native  mind. 
What  is  the  cause  ?  The  greatest  hindrance  of  Protestant 
missionary  work  in  India  lies  in  the  many  sects.  They 
offer  a  divided  front.  The  Indian  people  cannot  under¬ 
stand,  for  instance,  why  some  Protestants  hold  that  bishops 
are  to  rule  the  Church  and  others  deny  it,  why  some  hQld 
that  Christ  instituted  two  sacraments  and  others  say  he 
instituted  five.  The  delegates  at  the  World  Missionary 
Conference  held  at  Edinburgh  in  1910  fully  realized  that 
the  conflicting  doctrines  of  the  various  sects  are  causing 
great  havoc  in  the  missions.  At  this  conference  it  was, 
therefore,  decided  to  allot  to  each  of  the  missionary  socie¬ 
ties  a  distinct  mission  field  in  which  it  was  alone  to  hold 

13  Joseph  Carroll,  0.  S.  F.  C.,  Our  Missionary  Life  in  India,  Allaha¬ 
bad,  1917,  p.  68. 


PROTESTANT  MISSIONS 


199 


sway.  Until  1920,  however,  no  tangible  results  had  been 
effected  regarding  the  Edinburgh  resolution. 

Protestant  mission  work  in  India  is  not  bringing  the 
results  expected  by  Protestant  leaders.  Nevertheless  it 
has  some  good  effects,  not  the  least  of  which  is  the  dimin¬ 
ishing  of  the  prejudice  existing  in  the  native  mind  for 
everything  Christian. 


PART  III 

INDIAN  MISSIONS  OF  TO-DAY 


\ 


CHAPTER  I 


THE  MISSIONARY  AND  HIS  WORK 

Iisr  the  course  of  our  study  of  the  old  “Wonderland”  we 
have  reviewed  its  people,  history,  religion,  science  and  art. 
We  are  now  to  view  the  work  of  Catholic  evangelization 
in  its  different  departments,  and  learn  a  little  of  the  lives 
and  labors,  the  successes  and  failures  of  both  the  clerical 
and  lay  missionary. 

The  Missionary  Vocation. — “I  am  come  to  cast  fire  on 
the  earth,  and  what  would  I  but  that  it  be  kindled,”  said 
our  Blessed  Master  long  ago.  The  fire  of  Christian  faith, 
hope  and  charity — salvation — is  cast  upon  the  earth  for 
well-nigh  two  thousand  years,  and  who  is  to  kindle  it,  if 
not  the  missionary  ?  Who  is  to  continue  Christ’s  mission 
“to  save  that  which  was  lost,”  if  not  he  to  whom  Christ 
said:  “Go  preach  the  Gospel  to  every  creature,”  and, 
“He  who  heareth  you  heareth  Me”  ?  Sublime  vocation ! 
Estranged  from  all  things  dear  to  him  the  missionary 
comes  to  a  strange  land  to  make  it  the  land  of  his  adoption 
and  his  home.  Undaunted  by  love  or  sorrow  he  leaves 
all  near  and  dear  to  him  and  comes  with  a  smile  on  his 
face  and  a  song  in  his  heart  to  preach  salvation  to  those 
who,  ignorant  of  Christ,  “sit  in  darkness  and  in  the 
shadow  of  death.” 

For  such  a  task  that  awaits  a  missionary  only  the  “stout 
of  heart”  and  strong  of  arm  are  fit.  Hence,  no  priest 
should  venture  into  the  missions  without  special  qualifica¬ 
tions  and  training.  Stability  of  purpose,  patience  under 
trials,  submission  to  rule,  aptitude  for  study,  strength, 

203 


204 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


willingness  and  capability  for  work  of  all  kind  are  quali¬ 
ties  indispensable  to  the  missionary.  Pope  Benedict  XV., 
of  blessed  memory,  in  his  Letter  of  November  1919  on 
the  missions,  is  very  explicit  on  this  point  and  begs  re¬ 
ligious  superiors  ato  send  to  the  missions  only  the  elite 
among  their  subjects — those  who  recommend  themselves 
by  an  irreproachable  life,  a  fervent  piety  and  burning 
zeal  for  souls.”  1 

Climatic  Hardships  of  India. — As  every  individual 
mission  field,  so  also  India  is  fraught  with  difficulties  of 
its  own.  There  is,  first  of  all,  the  climatic  conditions 
which  are  the  source  of  no  little  suffering  to  the  mis¬ 
sionary.  Prolonged  residence  in  that  tropical  climate 
naturally  saps  the  energy  and  consumes  the  enthusiasm 
of  the  foreigner.  The  intense  heat  is  often  referred  to  by 
priests  and  Sisters  writing  from  that  country.  Not  to 
discourage,  but  to  forewarn  any  aspirant  to  the  missionary 
field  of  the  “Wonderland,”  we  quote  the  following  letter 
of  Fr.  Hood,  an  experienced  missionary  of  India:  “Have 
just  reached  home  after  a  call  and  am  overcome  by  the 
heat.  A  friend  tells  me  that  one  day  last  week  he  had  a 
breakdown  on  his  way  to  his  village.  He  rested  under  a 
tree  to  do  repairs  and  placed  a  thermometer  in  the  shade 
out  of  curiosity.  In  a  few  minutes  it  registered  145 
degrees.  This  may  give  some  idea  of  the  discomfort  of 
a  missionary  call  at  this  time  of  the  year.  Of  course,  we 
do  not  complain.  We  are  only  a  part  of  the  scheme  and 
others  have  even  worse  discomforts  to  undergo.  However, 
it  is  just  as  well  aspiring  missionaries  should  count  the 
cost  and  make  up  their  minds  for  a  bit  of  pain  in  one  shape 
or  another.”  2 

Not  less  astonishing  is  the  letter  of  Brother  Peter  of 
the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Cross,  who  writes  from  his 
Jungle  High  School  at  Bandurah:  “For  the  past  three 
months  the  temperature  has  been  constantly  100  degrees 

1 Catholic  Missions,  N.  Y.,  Vol.  XIV,  1919,  p.  52. 

2  Idem,  Vol.  XIII,  1918,  p.  228. 


THE  MISSIONARY  AND  HIS  WORK 


205 


at  five  a.m.  and  during  the  day  the  mercury  climbs  to 
165  degrees  in  the  shade.”  3 

Dangers  of  the  Wild. — The  jungles  of  India  abound 
with  tigers,  elephants,  leopards,  bears,  wolves,  serpents 
and  other  destructive  animals  which  reap  a  rich  harvest 
of  victims  every  year.  From  the  danger  of  wild  animals 
the  missionary  is  not  immune.  The  first  ever  killed 
directly  by  wild  beasts  was  the  Capuchin  Father  Cosmas. 
He  was  on  his  way  to  a  summer  station  and  being  anxious 
to  get  there  soon,  preceded  his  coolies.  When  he  had  not 
yet  arrived  by  sunset  the  Brother  at  the  summer  station 
became  alarmed  and  set  out  to  search  for  the  Father.  He 
had  not  gone  far  when  he  found  traces  of  him  on  the 
ground  and  on  the  tall  grass.  He  followed  up  the  trail 
of  blood  and  found  the  corpse  of  the  Father  in  a  most 
frightful  condition.  His  whole  body  had  been  gnawed 
to  pieces,  and  bits  of  flesh  were  scattered  over  the  ground. 
The  only  part  of  the  body  which  the  tigers  had  left  intact 
was  the  head.  4 

The  following  sad  instance  occurred  in  1912,  and  is 
reported  by  the  Bev.  Fr.  Joseph,  then  a  Tyrolese  Capu¬ 
chin  in  Bettiah:  “Enrico  Assietti  .  .  .  had  been  out  in 
the  Indian  missions  for  two  years  and  labored  at  the 
station  Bhoborbara,  in  the  Diocese  of  Krishnagar.  He 
awoke  one  night  with  a  stinging  pain  in  his  ear.  .  .  . 
Taking  up  his  lamp  and  searching  the  room,  he  found  a 
mountain  viper  and  killed  it  off-hand.  He  then  called  in 
a  servant  who  slept  in  the  veranda  of  the  house  and  em¬ 
ployed  the  first — often  also  the  last  remedy.  He  cut  into 
his  ear  near  the  wound  .  .  .  returned  to  bed,  but  soon 
began  to  feel  ill.  At  about  three  o’clock  he  said  Mass 
and  afterwards  jested  about  his  midnight  adventure.  By 
eight  o’clock  the  Father’s  condition  took  a  serious  turn. 
He  lost  his  speech  and  became  unconscious.  The  physi- 

3  The  Bengalese,  Washington,  D.  C.,  Vol.  I,  p.  26. 

*Bericht  ueber  die  Nordtirolische  K a pusiner- Mission  von  Bettiah 
und  Nepal,  Innsbruck,  1904,  pp.  130-139. 


206 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


cian  who  had  been  called  in  declared  he  could  do  nothing 
to  save  the  patient.  The  snake  had  bitten  him  in  the 
interior  auditory  organs.  At  six  o’clock  the  youthful 
missionary  passed  away — another  victim  of  the  hard  life 
on  the  Indian  missions,  so  replete  with  dangers.”  5 

Language  Difficulties . — It  is  of  prime  importance  to 
the  missionary  in  India  to  study  the  native’s  language. 
He  cannot  hope  to  serve  the  people  in  capacity  of  pastor  or 
apostle  until  he  can  converse  with  them  in  their  own 
tongue.  To  win  the  native  for  Christianity  the  mission¬ 
ary  must  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  him,  know  his 
character  and  customs  and  study  the  best  means  to  impart 
the  message  he  has  come  to  convey.  In  pursuing  the 
study  of  languages  the  missionary,  be  he  young  or  old, 
must  proceed  along  the  same  lines  he  followed  when 
learning  his  mother  tongue;  in  other  words,  he  must 
become  a  child,  docile  and  humble,  and  with  primer  in 
hand,  place  himself  in  the  hands  of  a  competent  teacher. 
The  missionary  in  India  deals  not  with  one  people  with 
common  customs,  etc.,  but  with  multitudinous  groups,  each 
bound  by  tradition  to  a  long-established  mode  of  life. 
India  is  broken  up  into  a  large  number  of  mutually  ex¬ 
clusive  aggregates  owing  to  the  operation  of  the  caste 
system.  It  is  the  home  of  seven  different  races  with 
numerous  languages  and  dialects,  some  counting  as  many 
as  220  different  vernacular  languages.  The  languages 
spoken  in  1911  by  312,912,624  persons  in  British  India 
are  grouped  into  four  large  families,  and  twenty-three 
languages  belonging  to  these  families  are  spoken  by  no 
less  than  one  million  persons  each.  The  principal  lan¬ 
guages  are  Hindi  (spoken  in  1911  by  82,003,235  persons), 
Bengali  (spoken  by  48,367,915  persons),  Telugu  (spoken 
by  23,542,861  persons),  Marathi  (spoken  by  19,806,636 
persons),  Tamil  (spoken  by  18,128,365  persons),  Pun¬ 
jabi  (spoken  by  15,876,758  persons),  Rajasthani  (spoken 

5  Joseph  Spieler,  P.S.M.,  Lights  and  Shadows,  translated  by  C. 
Lawrence,  O.  M.  Cap.,  Techny,  1916,  pp.  110-111. 


THE  MISSIONARY  AND  HIS  WORK 


207 


by  14,067,590  persons),  Western  Hindi  (spoken  by 
14,037,882  persons),  after  which  come  Gujarati,  Kana- 
rese,  Oriya,  Burmese  and  Malayalam.  Hindustani,  a  dia¬ 
lect  of  Hindi,  has  become  the  literary  language  of  Hin¬ 
dustan  and  is  the  lingua  franca  of  India,  i.e.,  can  be 
understood  everywhere  as  a  second  language  besides  the 
particular  vernacular.  English  is  understood  by  many.6 

The  missionary’s  knowledge  of  the  native  language 
must  be  thorough.  To  understand  Hindustani,  Tamil  or 
Bengali  in  the  way  he  does  Greek  or  Latin,  which  he  reads 
but  may  not  be  able  to  speak  fluently,  will  not  suffice  for 
his  purpose.  If  he  is  to  gain  the  confidence  of  the  people 
whom  he  has  come  to  convert,  he  must  associate  with 
them,  learn  their  yearnings  and  strive  to  help  them  in 
every  shape  and  form.  True,  the  missionary  may  be 
placed  in  charge  of  a  congregation  composed  chiefly  of 
Europeans,  nevertheless  he  will  have  daily  opportunities 
for  conversing  with  the  natives  in  their  own  tongue. 
Then,  too,  he  may  at  any  time  be  transferred  to  a  native 
colony  and  he  can  qualify  for  this  work  only  by  a  knowl¬ 
edge  of  the  native  language. 

If,  while  ignorant  of  the  native  tongue,  the  Indian 
missionary  be  unacquainted  with  English,  he  will  have  at 
least  two  new  languages  to  study.  English  is  the  official 
language  of  the  country,  and  although  the  missionary 
may  be  working  in  a  native  colony,  he  will  always  have 
business  to  transact  with  the  Government  officials,  whoso 
language  he  ought  to  know.  The  task  of  learning  the 
Indian  tongues  may  appear  formidable  to  the  beginner, 
but  with  due  application  and  sharp  attention  to  the  speech 
of  others  the  missionaries  are  daily  mastering  the  seem¬ 
ingly  impossible. 

The  Central  Station. — Susceptible  and  even  sensitive  to 
all  the  physical,  spiritual  and  moral  hardships  of  India, 
the  missionary  comes  to  spend  himself  for  the  wretched 
heathen,  “to  save  that  which  was  lost.”  The  new  mission- 

6  Whitaker's  Almanac  for  1922,  p.  606. 


208 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


ary  is  usually  a  member  of  a  Religious  Order  and  when 
not  itinerating  makes  his  home  at  one  of  its  central  sta¬ 
tions.  His  headquarters  consist  of  one  or  two  rooms  and 
a  minimum  of  furniture.  Here  he  makes  his  daily  medi¬ 
tation,  says  his  breviary,  keeps  his  registers,  attends  to  his 
correspondence  and  diary,  and  answers  the  calls  of  the 
parishioners.  At  the  central  station  there  is  a  substantial 
church  built  of  brick  or  stone,  often  the  finest,  if  not  sole 
public  monument  in  the  locality.  The  dome  and  spire 
mounted  by  the  sign  of  Redemption  are  in  marked  con¬ 
trast  to  the  low,  pyramidal  features  of  the  heathen 
pagodas. 

“Most  native  Catholic  churches  in  India  are  built  along 
airy  lines  of  architecture,  they  open  to  the  rare  breezes 
and  are  without  pews,  for  there  is  just  kneeling-space  in 
the  nave.  The  confessionals  have  no  boxing  about  them,  a 
criss-cross  of  wood  separating  penitent  and  priest.  A 
familiar  institution  is  the  paukha,  which  consists  of  long 
rows  of  hanging  cotton  that  the  hidden  paukhaivallah  by 
means  of  a  mess  of  ropes  keeps  gently  waving  overhead. 
It  is  supposed  to  create  an  artificial  breeze,  and  sometimes 
it  almost  does.”  7 

The  Missionary  in  a  Native  Colony. — Beside  the  reg¬ 
ular  pastoral  work  common  to  almost  all  priests  in  India, 
the  missionary  who  resides  at  the  central  station  must 
often  be  active  in  the  capacity  of  teacher,  physician,  judge, 
contractor,  procurator,  etc.  Early  in  the  morning  he  is, 
above  all,  God’s  priest,  for  then  he  prays  and  offers  sacri¬ 
fice  for  the  people.  After  Mass  he  is  usually  a  catechist 
instructing  young  and  old  in  the  doctrines  of  Faith. 
Then  he  is  a  householder  who  “goes  out  to  hire  laborers 
into  his  vineyard.”  The  better  to  insure  favorable  en¬ 
vironment  for  converts,  who  on  embracing  Christianity 
cut  themselves  off  from  the  friendship  and  society  of  their 
pagan  brethren,  the  mission  usually  owns  a  large  tract  of 
farmland,  on  which  the  poorer  converts  find  employment. 

7  Neil  Boyton,  S.  J.,  America,  N.  Y.,  Vol.  XIX,  1918,  p.  449. 


THE  MISSIONARY  AND  HIS  WORK 


209 


This  interest  in  the  temporal  welfare  of  the  neophytes 
removes  from  them  many  and  great  dangers  and  tempta¬ 
tions  to  relapse.  Conversion  in  India  is  verily  social 
suicide.  The  Christianized  native  is  an  outcast,  despised 
and  trampled  on  by  his  former  caste-fellows.  Forsaken 
and  forlorn,  he  finds  a  “father,  mother,  sister  and  brother” 
in  the  missionary.  On  the  mission  farm  the  Father  and 
lay  Brother  teach  the  convert  agriculture,  or,  if  there  be 
technical  schools,  the  art  of  bookbinding,  carpet  weaving, 
etc.  Of  course,  the  missionary  supervises  all,  hires  and 
pays  the  workers. 

Peacemaker. — The  missionary  is,  furthermore,  a  peace¬ 
maker  in  the  colony.  He  may  be  sitting  in  his  office  going 
over  accounts  or  saying  his  breviary,  when  the  mistress 
of  the  women  workers  rushes  in  and  implores  him  to  come 
quickly  and  calm  disturbances  in  the  field.  Rising  from 
his  quiet  occupation,  he  hurries  to  the  scene  of  strife. 
Hardly  is  he  seen  in  the  distance,  when  all  litigants  enter 
with  new  zest  into  their  work.  When  the  Father  has 
arrived  in  their  midst,  the  women  begin  to  excuse  them¬ 
selves,  protesting,  “they  did  not  quarrel,  spoke  only  a 
little  loud,  but  worked  assiduously.”  How  true  their  crude 
apology  is,  the  missionary  knows  only  too  well.  He,  there¬ 
fore,  deems  it  his  duty  to  correct  and  sometimes  even 
to  punish  the  guilty.  Returning  he  visits  the  men  workers 
to  ascertain  whether  or  not  they  are  enacting  a  similar 
farce.  Little  expecting  the  Father  to  make  his  rounds  so 
early,  the  men  sit  quietly  together  enjoying  a  morning’s 
chat.  Here,  too,  the  Father  must  show  severity,  else 
nothing  will  be  accomplished.  Returning  to  his  bungalow, 
he  finds  a  crowd  of  colonists  awaiting  him.  One  man  will 
want  medicine  for  his  sick  wife,  another  begs  seed  for  his 
fields,  a  third  needs  money  immediately  and  offers  to 
leave  a  nose  ring,  earring  or  other  trinkets  as  a  security; 
a  fourth  wishes  to  borrow  money,  but  since  he  has  nothing 
wherewith  to  pledge  his  honesty,  promises  to  bring  grain 
when  the  harvest  is  ripe.  Hoodwinked  often  before  by 


210 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


such  promises,  the  Father  demands  the  beggar’s  signature. 
Alas !  he  pleads  inability  to  write.  Instead  a  thumb  print 
is  taken  and  affixed  to  the  bond  which  signifies  that  the 
borrower  has  agreed  to  the  terms.  Thus  has  the  mission¬ 
ary  in  a  short  space  of  time  been  apothecary,  procurator 
and  money-lender. 

Night  Watchman. — In  the  evening  the  laborers  again 
crowd  the  missionary’s  quarters  for  their  daily  pay.  It 
is  no  large  pay,  but  good  in  comparison  with  the  work, 
and  the  laborers  are  well  satisfied.  As  a  grand  finale  of  a 
busy  day  there  is  in  some  missions  devotion  for  the  bene¬ 
factors  and  instruction  for  the  children  who,  owing  to 
their  employment  at  the  mission,  could  not  be  present  at 
the  morning  instruction.  By  this  time  night  has  come  on 
and  the  missionary  is  glad  to  retire.  But  even  his  nights 
are  not  free  from  disturbances.  Frequently  destructive 
fires  break  out  at  night  whose  origin  is  traceable  to  the 
ignorance  and  recklessness  of  the  natives.  Thus  it  hap¬ 
pened  that  a  Hindu  lad,  in  his  attempt  to  cook  stolen  rice, 
started  a  fire  in  a  barn  well  stored  with  straw.  In  a  short 
time  the  barn  was  a  mass  of  flames  and  threatened  to 
destroy  the  entire  village.  The  utter  helplessness  and 
confusion  of  the  people  on  such  an  occasion  cannot  be 
described.  It  naturally  devolves  on  the  missionary  to  play 
fireman  and  save  what  is  to  be  saved.8 

Visiting  the  Sick. — In  the  midst  of  his  daily  occupa¬ 
tions  the  priest  may  at  any  time  be  called  upon  to  minister 
to  the  sick  and  dying.  A  sick  call  may  involve  a  trip  from 
a  quarter  of  a  mile  to  a  race  of  ten  or  twenty  miles.  Ar¬ 
riving  at  the  dwelling  the  priest  either  enters  the  sick 
room  or  orders  the  patient  to  be  carried  out  into  the  yard. 
Squatting  close  to  the  bed,  he  performs  his  charitable 
duty — instructs  the  patient,  if  he  be  a  neophyte,  hears  his 
confession,  gives  him  absolution,  the  Holy  Viaticum  and 
extreme  unction.  Sometimes  sick  calls  are  complicated 

8  Bericht  ueber  die  N ordtirolische  Kapuziner- Mission  von  Bettiah 
und  Nepal ,  Innsbruck,  1909,  p.  10  ff. 


Natives  at  Work, 


THE  MISSIONARY  AND  HIS  WORK 


211 


affairs,  and  a  missionary  may  have  to  work  his  way  for 
miles  across  a  pitchlike  sea  of  mud,  use  up  his  pair  of 
bullocks  and  after  a  half  day’s  work  arrive  too  late.  Or  a 
telegram  may  summon  a  Father  some  fifty  or  a  hundred 
miles  from  home  to  a  “dying”  patient.  Hastening  by 
bullock  cart,  motor  car,  train  and  pony  carriage  in  turn, 
he  arrives  to  find  the  “dying”  patient  “tolerably  well.” 
“Some  dear  old  folk  manage  to  live  for  a  third  or  fourth 
reception  of  the  ‘last’  sacraments.  ...  In  times  of  epi¬ 
demics — annual  or  quarterly  events — a  third  or  fourth  of 
the  people  you  prepared  for  Heaven  remain  on  earth  and 
will  recall  you  later.  Or,  after  a  race  of  eight  miles,  you 
find  an  old  shrivelled-up  creature  ‘sans  eyes,  sans  ears, 
sans  teeth,  sans  everything,’  as  the  poet  would  describe 
her,  who  confesses  that  ‘she  abused  her  unruly  hens  and 
chickens,  the  bad  weather,  and  sometimes  the  Devil;  and 
that’s  all,’  and  asks  you  to  help  her  towards  a  happy  exit 
from  this  world.  Again,  some  wait  to  call  till  the  patient 
has  lost  all  speech.  To  knock  about  for  hours  in  mud  and 
sand,  heat  and  dust,  darkness  or  sun  glare,  over  roads  that 
defy  a  motor  car,  is  an  arduous,  but  joyful  task.  A  soul 
is  going  to  Heaven.”  9 

The  Missionary  on  Circuit. — From  the  central  station 
the  other  Catholics,  often  living  many  miles  distant,  are 
attended.  The  Christians  are  usually  very  poor;  hence 
their  chapel,  if  one  there  be,  and  the  accommodations  for 
their  pastor  are  of  the  very  poorest.  What  it  means  to  be 
a  missionary  at  an  outlying  station  in  India  can  be  gleaned 
from  the  following: 

Picture  to  yourself  a  small  Indian  village  lying  from 
fifteen  to  thirty  miles  distant  from  a  head  station.  An 
Indian  village  is  a  mass  of  low  dwellings  built  of  clay 
and  thatched  with  palm  branches.  After  years  of  patient 
labor  on  the  part  of  an  apostolic  missionary  the  majority 
of  the  villagers  may  be  Catholic  and  they  will  welcome 

•  J.  C.  Houpert,  S.  J.,  Madura  Mission  Manualy  Trichinopoly,  1916, 
pp.  78,  79. 


212 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


their  missionary  with  loud  demonstration.  If,  however, 
the  Catholics  are  in  the  minority,  the  priest  is,  for  fear  of 
the  pagans,  accorded  a  quiet  reception.  If  the  village 
boasts  of  a  chapel  it  will  probably  be  very  similar  to  the 
dwellings  of  the  natives,  except  that  it  is  of  larger  pro¬ 
portions  and  is  surmounted  by  a  cross.  These  chapels 
are  usually  built  of  clay  and  the  roof  is  covered  with 
straw  or  palm  branches. 

The  furniture  usually  comprises  but  the  bare  necessities 
of  a  church,  an  altar  with  statues,  perhaps  a  few  orna¬ 
ments,  stations  of  the  cross  and  confessional.  The  altar 
stone,  sacred  vessels  and  vestments  travel  along  with  the 
missionary.  Of  course,  in  some  villages  we  meet  with 
chapels  built  of  rough  lumber,  but  these  are  in  the  richer 
localities  which  are  usually  adjacent  to  cities.  The  Cath¬ 
olics  scattered  within  a  radius  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  miles 
gather  in  the  village  chapel  when  the  missionary  arrives 
among  them.  Here  confessions  are  heard,  the  Holy  Sac¬ 
rifice  of  Mass  is  offered,  baptism  administered  and  in¬ 
structions  given  to  the  faithful  and  catechumens. 

Where  the  Luxury  of  a  Chapel  Is  Unknown. — When 
the  missionary  has  finished  his  ministrations  in  one  village 
he  mounts  his  oxcart,  or  whatever  sort  of  conveyance  he 
has,  and  drives  over  hedge  and  ditch,  through  sand  and 
mud,  uphill  and  downhill,  through  dried  river  beds  to 
his  next  station.  The  shaking  and  tossing  about  and  the 
danger  of  upsetting  often  become  unbearable,  and  some¬ 
times,  after  receiving  slight  but  smarting  injuries  from 
the  heavy  jarring,  the  missionary  is  obliged  to  get  off  the 
cart  and  follow  it  on  foot  under  the  burning  rays  of  the 
sun.  Long  after  sundown  the  Father  arrives  at  his  desti¬ 
nation,  and  the  Christians  crowd  around  him  rejoicing 
and  accosting  him  with  the  well-worn  greeting,  “Man  of 
God,  bless  us  !”  Well-nigh  exhausted  he  sinks  down  under 
a  palm  tree  and  stretches  out  his  weary  limbs.  Refreshed 
after  a  while  he  begins  his  daily,  or  rather  his  nightly 
work,  for  it  is  a  village  where  the  pastoral  duties  must  be 


THE  MISSIONARY  AND  HIS  WORK 


213 


exercised  under  the  cover  of  darkness  if  the  evil  machina¬ 
tions  of  the  pagans  are  to  be  escaped. 

Bereft  of  chapel  the  villagers  may  lead  the  Father  to  a 
shed,  barn  or  stable.  Frequently  the  only  roof  is  the  sky. 
The  first  duty  after  his  arrival  is  to  administer  baptism 
to  the  infants  born  since  his  last  visit.  Then  the  adult 
converts  who  were  under  the  instruction  of  catechists  are 
brought,  and  if  they  pass  the  examination  are  baptized. 
A  short  instruction  on  confession  may  follow,  after  which 
the  Father  withdraws  to  a  secluded  spot  to  hear  confes¬ 
sions.  He  may  be  detained  in  the  confessional  till  four  or 
five  o’clock  in  the  morning.  When  he  returns  to  the  con¬ 
gregation  he  finds  many  of  the  faithful  asleep.  He  gives 
orders  to  awaken  the  sleeping  and  to  prepare  the  altar 
for  the  Holy  Sacrifice.  In  the  meantime  he  makes  his 
preparation  for  Mass.  In  a  short  time  the  improvised 
altar  is  finished.  Four  posts  driven  in  the  ground  are 
topped  with  a  flat  board  on  which  the  altar  stone  is  laid. 

Peril  Attends  the  Sacrifice  of  Mass. — When  the  priest 
offers  the  Sacrifice  of  Mass  in  the  open,  fear  and  trembling 
frequently  take  hold  of  him,  for  danger  may  be  imminent 
from  all  sides.  There  are,  first  of  all,  the  strong  blasts  of 
wind  which  after  a  period  of  calm  suddenly  rage  and 
threaten  to  blow  down  the  altar.  The  paten  must  be 
continually  kept  over  the  Sacred  Species,  lest  a  gust  of 
wind  carry  it  away.  Then  there  are  myriads  of  creeping 
and  flying  insects  which,  attracted  by  the  blaze  of  the 
candles,  light  on  the  altar,  whilst  swarms  of  bats  as  large 
as  crows  constantly  torment  the  throng  of  worshipers. 
Finally,  there  is  the  everpresent  dread  of  the  pagans 
falling  upon  the  faithful  at  any  moment  and  desecrating 
the  Blessed  Sacrament  in  case  the  celebration  is  not  com¬ 
pleted  before  daybreak.  After  the  Gospel  the  missionary 
might  preach  on  Holy  Communion,  and  at  the  end  of 
Mass  again  exhorts  the  catechumens  to  persevere  and 
study  their  catechism  that  they  may  be  ready  for  baptism 
and  admission  into  the  Church  on  his  next  visit.  At  day- 


214 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


break,  when  the  first  heathen  comes  forth  to  begin  his 
daily  work,  the  Christian  worshipers  disperse,  and  the 
missionary  is  on  his  road  home  or,  perhaps,  to  another 
Christian  settlement. 

This  picture  of  the  Indian  missionary  in  his  routine  of 
pastoral  work  might  seem  at  first  sight  to  smack  of  the 
“long  ago/’  but  if  attention  be  given  to  the  words  of  the 
Very  Rev.  Joseph  Carroll,  Missionary  Apostolic  to  the 
Diocese  of  Allahabad,  such  a  view  will  soon  be  dispelled: 
“There  are  those  even  in  our  own  times  who  afford  us 
evidence  of  what  zeal  begotten  of  true  charity  can  effect 
in  the  midst  of  an  uncultured  and  yet  not  unlovable  peo¬ 
ple.  It  is  not  so  long  since  that  it  need  be  forgotten  how 
in  the  exercise  of  their  ministry  our  earlier  Fathers  in  the 
country  were  obliged  to  make  their  way  on  foot  through 
wild  and  unexplored  districts,  exposed  to  all  weathers  and 
with  scarce  the  necessaries  of  life  to  sustain  them.  And 
there  are  parts  of  India  where  at  the  present  day  the  like 
conditions  prevail,  and  missionaries  must  undergo  hard¬ 
ships  as  great  as  any  in  the  past.”  10 

The  Missionary  in  Times  of  Sickness  and  Famine. — 
Sickness,  famine  and  death  are  household  words  in  India. 
At  intervals  these  cruel  monsters  stalk  over  the  land  and 
reap  their  harvests  of  lives  by  the  thousands.  In  such 
times  the  zeal  of  the  missionary  is  taxed  beyond  concep¬ 
tion.  At  sight  of  so  many  human  skeletons  among  whom 
are  the  lame,  blind,  deaf  and  dumb,  lying  on  the  ground  in 
the  throes  of  misery,  sorrow  fills  the  Father’s  heart.  The 
poor  wretches,  too,  know  the  depth  of  the  Father’s  love, 
and  at  his  very  appearance  crawl  toward  him,  embrace  his 
feet  and  look  piteously  into  his  face.  As  often  as  the 
missionary  makes  his  rounds  he  supplies  himself  with 
rice,  flour,  milk,  etc.,  to  relieve  the  famine  or  plague- 
stricken  victims.  During  the  great  famine  of  1897,  Mgr. 
Pelckmans,  O.  M.  Cap.,  Bishop  of  Lahore,  wrote: 

30  Joseph  Carroll,  0.  S.  F.  C.,  Our  Missionary  Life  in  India ,  Alla¬ 
habad,  1917,  p.  22. 


THE  MISSIONARY  AND  HIS  WORK 


215 


“The  rural  districts  abound  with  families  in  the  direst 
need.  In  many  villages  the  dearth  of  food  is  so  great 
that  Hindu  parents,  who  otherwise  cling  to  their  children, 
not  only  abandon  them  to  the  first  person  who  offers  to 
care  for  them,  but  they  themselves,  despite  religious 
prejudice,  hand  them  over  to  the  Catholic  priests.  The 
Protestants  receive  countless  children  to  educate  in  error, 
while  the  Moslems  for  a  piece  of  bread  people  their  harems 
with  unfortunate  girls.”  11 

Despite  poverty  and  overcrowded  orphanages  the  bish¬ 
ops  and  missionary  superiors  send  their  priests  out  to  care 
for  the  victims  and,  if  need  be,  to  bring  them  into  the 
thronged  orphanages.  In  the  famine  mentioned  above 
one  Father  of  Lahore  transported  some  sixty  victims  to 
the  orphanage. 

Spiritual  Advantages  of  Famine  and  Cholera. — “The 
famine,”  reported  Fr.  Fourcade  of  the  Archdiocese  of 
Pondicherry,  “has  wrought  miracles.  The  catechumenates 
are  filling,  baptismal  water  flows  in  streams,  and  starving 
little  tots  fly  in  masses  to  heaven.”  Also  among  adults  the 
merciful  ministry  of  priests  and  Sisters  in  times  of  famine 
awakens  a  strong  impulse  towards  Christianity.  Although 
the  missionaries  are  slow  to  baptize  famine-stricken  natives 
who  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  relief  might  be  led  to  espouse 
the  religion  of  Christ,  nevertheless,  in  1897  within  one 
month  more  than  1,000  candidates  were  admitted  into  the 
catechumenates.  “How  many  of  them  are  in  earnest,” 
wrote  a  missionary,  “the  future  must  disclose.  At  any 
rate,  the  children  are  saved  and  instructed  in  Christian 
doctrine.  As  for  the  rest,  no  one  is  baptized  until  he  has 
given  sufficient  proof  of  his  perseverance.”  12 

Evangelizing  the  Pagans. — When  St.  Francis  Xavier 
entered  the  mission  field  of  India  he  went  out  after  the 
manner  of  the  first  Apostles  and  preached  the  Gospel  to 
the  masses.  His  heroic  example  was  followed  by  his 

11  Die  katholischcn  Missionen,  Freiburg,  Vol.  XXVI,  p.  64. 

u  Ibidem. 


216 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


immediate  successors,  and  to  a  certain  extent  is  followed 
to  the  present  day  in  some  portions  of  the  missionary 
world.  Protestants,  especially,  are  noted  for  their  well- 
equipped  missionary  bands  which  go  about  evangelizing 
the  pagans.  This  method  of  apostolic  activity,  however,  is 
not  characteristic  of  the  average  Catholic  missionary  of 
India.  Going  out  “into  the  hedges  and  byways”  to  an¬ 
nounce  Christ’s  Kingdom  and  induce  pagans  to  enter  the 
“Marriage  Feast”  is  work  superadded  to  the  primary 
duties  of  India’s  Catholic  missionary.  His  main  depart¬ 
ment  is  the  shepherding  of  sheep  already  in  the  true  fold. 

However,  there  are  many  missionaries  who  devote  them¬ 
selves  exclusively  to  the  conversion  of  the  pagans.  In 
1890  the  Propaganda  made  this  a  strict  obligation  and  in 
March  1893  gave  further  instructions  on  this  same  point. 
As  early  as  1887  the  Dioceses  of  Colombo,  Bangalore  and 
Allahabad  had  made  regulations  according  to  which  every 
mission  should  have  at  least  some  missionaries  who  devote 
their  time  and  talents  to  the  conversion  of  the  pagans.13 

Features  of  Catholic  Life . — The  genuine  Indian  con¬ 
vert  clings  tenaciously  to  his  Faith  and  loves,  especially, 
elaborate  ceremonies.  When  the  missionary  appears 
amongst  his  flock  after  months  of  absence  the  simple 
natives,  all  eager  for  his  sacred  ministrations,  fall  down 
and  beg  his  blessing.  The  majority  of  them  come  to 
church  as  they  go  through  life — barefooted.  They  crowd 
as  close  to  the  communion  rail  as  possible  and  squat  on  the 
floor.  The  luxury  of  pews  is  unknown  in  Indian  churches. 
Pemarkable  is  the  native’s  devotion  during  the  Holy  Mass. 
The  worshipers  begin  their  prayers  in  the  lowest  tone, 
their  voices  gradually  rise  to  the  highest  pitch  and  sink  to 
the  lowest  note  again.  In  this  manner  the  Our  Father, 
Hail  Mary  and  Creed  are  recited  by  each  individually. 
At  the  Consecration  or  at  Benediction,  the  outbursts  of 
their  devotion  are  a  great  disturbance  to  the  priest. 

Unswerving  devotion  to  St.  Francis  Xavier  is  greatly 

13  Analecta  Ordinis  Cappucinorum ,  Roma,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  132-139. 


THE  MISSIONARY  AND  HIS  WORK 


217 


in  evidence,  especially  among  natives  whose  forefathers 
received  the  cleansing  waters  of  baptism  from  the  Saint. 
In  Goa  half  of  the  hoys  and  churches  bear  his  name. 
Goanese  Catholic  passengers  will  always  prefer  passage 
on  a  boat  named  Francis,  no  matter  how  overcrowded. 
On  a  steamship  named  “St.  Francis”  they  would  put  out 
into  the  Arabian  Sea  where  death  lurked  during  the  late 
war,  convinced  of  security  in  St.  Francis’  name. 

“But  it  is  at  the  time  of  a  feast  that  the  native  Chris¬ 
tians’  love  of  display  Freaks  surface.’  Similar  to  our 
‘Forty  Hours  Devotion,’  the  East  Indians  have  a  ‘Thir¬ 
teen  Hours  Devotion.’  After  High  Mass  the  Host  is 
enthroned.  All  day  long  bright  lines  of  home  sodalities 
and  sodalities  from  surrounding  parishes,  the  invariable 
orphans  from  the  nearby  convent  with  a  white-clad  nun  as 
their  marshal,  and  the  bulk  of  the  parish  enter  and  leave 
the  church.  In  the  evening’s  cool  they  all  crowd  back  by 
thousands.  Lights,  like  the  stars  overhead,  glimmer  and 
flicker.  Coolies  carry  great  clusters  of  sparkling  glass 
and  candles  enclosed  in  globes.  The  parish,  dressed  in 
white  or  brilliant  shades,  falls  into  line,  and  the  procession 
winds  under  the  palms  about  the  church  compound.  Sev¬ 
eral  times  at  gorgeous  temporary  altars,  our  Lord  is  raised 
in  blessing  over  the  bowed  heads.  And  finally  Solemn 
Benediction  closes  this  Catholic  Arabian  Nights  scene.”  14 

Native  Christian  Marriages . — The  native  Christian  of 
India  fortunately  adheres  faithfully  to  the  laws  of  the 
Church  in  regard  to  marriage.  Mixed  marriages,  short 
notice,  dispensations  urged  in  respect  of  forbidden  times, 
unlawful  degrees,  etc.,  are  of  rare  occurrence.  Formal 
engagements  before  the  priest,  the  Nuptial  Mass  and 
Blessing  are  held  in  high  honor.  Much  rejoicing  and  the 
observance  of  time-honored  local  customs  attend  the  cele¬ 
bration  of  a  wedding.  “Thus,  for  instance,  among  the 
Catholic  Syrians  of  Malabar,  after  the  agreements  are 
concluded,  the  parents  of  the  future  bride  and  bridegroom 
14  Neil  Boyton,  S.  J.,  America,  N.  Y.,  Vol.  XIX,  1918,  p.  449. 


218 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


bring  the  young  people  before  the  vicar  of  the  cburch  to 
be  formally  engaged.  In  further  token  of  their  betrothal, 
the  parties  visit  the  church  and  leave  there  a  sum  of 
money  in  offering.  At  the  marriage,  instead  of  placing  a 
ring  on  the  hand  of  the  bride,  the  groom  fastens  about  her 
neck  a  richly  embroidered  garment  with  gold  cross  at¬ 
tached  ( Thalie )  which  is  first  blessed  by  the  priest.”  15 

In  the  Catholic  orphanages  it  is  customary  for  the 
Sisters  to  conduct  the  marriage  arrangements  for  their 
charges.  The  proceedings  are  about  as  follows :  The  pros¬ 
pective  groom,  armed  with  commendatory  letters  from  his 
pastor,  presents  himself  at  the  orphanage.  He  is  allowed 
to  see  some  girls  of  the  institution.  After  making  his 
choice  a  day  is  appointed  for  the  formal  engagement. 
The  most  amusing  part  of  this  game  is  that  modesty  and 
custom  require  the  maid  to  refuse  the  first  proposal.  Of 
course,  from  the  manner  in  which  that  “no”  is  said,  the 
willingness  or  unwillingness  of  the  girl  becomes  evident. 
If  a  shy  “yes”  sounds  through  the  “no,”  the  suitor  renews 
his  plea  and  after  further  coaxing  a  soft,  bashful  “yes”  is 
heard.  After  the  Nuptial  Mass  the  bride  and  bridegroom, 
accompanied  by  relatives  and  friends,  musicians  and  a 
noisy  crowd,  proceed  to  the  Sisters’  convent.  A  garland 
of  flowers  is  hung  about  the  superior’s  neck,  and  baskets 
of  citron,  fruits  and  sweets  are  offered  the  Sisters  as  a 
present.  In  return  the  newly  married  couple  are  pre¬ 
sented  with  a  rosary  and  crucifix.”  16 

Native  Christian  Funerals. — “Christian  funerals  are, 
like  death  in  India,  sudden.  And  if  the  person  died  before 
the  early  afternoon,  his  body  will  spend  the  night  in  the 
cemetery.  Hence  it  is  that  the  ceremonies  are  simple. 
The  body  is  placed  in  an  open  coffin,  carried  through  the 
roads  on  a  bier  or  in  a  gharri  (open  carriage)  to  the 
church.  Here  the  priest  says  the  prayers,  and  the  proces¬ 
sion  proceeds  to  the  cemetery.  If  the  friends  are  poor  they 

19  Joseph  Carroll,  O.  S.  F.  C.,  op.  o.,  p.  169. 

10  Die  katholischen  Missionen ,  Freiburg,  Vol.  XXXV,  p.  205. 


THE  MISSIONARY  AND  HIS  WORK 


219 


follow  the  coffin  on  foot ;  otherwise  they  crowd  into  gharris, 
driven  by  red-fezed  Mohammedans.  The  Requiem  is  nat¬ 
urally  said  after  the  funeral.  And  at  this  a  black  draped 
catafalque  is  used.”  17 

The  Mission  Theater . — We  have  already  heard  of  the 
natives’  intense  fondness  of  the  theater  and  of  the  immoral 
character  of  the  plays  to  which  he  is  invariably  invited. 
Quite  naturally  the  missionaries  not  only  warn  the  Chris¬ 
tians,  but  positively  forbid  them  to  attend  these  obscene 
performances.  At  the  same  time  they  feel  the  need  of 
offering  a  substitute.  Herein  lies  the  great  value  of  the 
mission  theater.  Instead  of  the  smutty  pictures  of  the 
natak  and  tamasha,  the  impressionable  mind  of  the  Hindu 
is  stored  with  representations  of  the  pure  and  beautiful. 
And  in  addition  the  chorus,  which  sings  in  simple  words 
the  mysteries  of  the  Christian  Religion,  greatly  aids  the 
work  of  evangelization.  In  Catholic  institutions  and  in 
parishes  where  there  are  sufficient  talent  and  assistance 
the  mission  theater  is  being  perfected  year  by  year. 

The  Most  Popular  Play. — During  yuletide  the  Chris¬ 
tians  and  heathens  flock  to  the  Nativity  of  Christ.  The 
contents  of  the  several  acts  are  the  Annunciation,  Adora¬ 
tion  of  the  Shepherds,  Coming  of  the  Magi  and  their 
Worship  at  the  Crib.  The  performance  is  usually  prefaced 
by  a  hymn  in  which  the  chorus  implores  the  help  of  God 
and  asks  in  advance  pardon  for  the  faults  of  vanity  that 
might  be  committed  during  the  play.  The  theme  of  the 
hymns,  set  to  local  melodies,  tells  of  the  creation  and  fall 
of  man,  the  preparation  of  the  Jews  and  Gentiles  for  the 
Incarnation  and  Redemption.  The  purpose  of  the  hymns 
— to  supplant  the  immoral  songs  of  the  filthy  tamasha — 
is  always  attained,  for  during  the  performance  the  audi¬ 
ence  begins  to  hum  the  catchy  refrain,  and  for  months 
after  the  play  the  Christians,  young  and  old,  are  heard 
singing  in  the  evenings  the  hymns  they  learned  at  the 

rfay- 

17  Neil  Boyton,  S.  J.,  America ,  N.  Y.,  Vol.  XIX,  1918,  pp.  448-449. 


220 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


Place  of  Staging. — These  sacred  dramas  are  generally 
staged  on  an  open  veranda  of  the  mission  building,  and 
the  audience  finds  place  in  the  shady  yard.  Sometimes 
schools  or  other  public  buildings  are  used;  however,  the 
heat  and  the  foul  air  are  the  objectionable  features  to 
indoor  acting.  At  Christmas  the  atmosphere  is  somewhat 
cold,  but  still  warm  enough  to  witness  outdoor  plays.  The 
Indian  boys  and  young  men  display  good  talent  for  the 
stage,  and  their  clear,  strong,  sonorous  voices  render  the 
action  easily  intelligible  to  the  audience.  Their  faithful 
memories  facilitate  the  mastering  of  their  roles.  The 
action  is  energetic  and  natural  and  may  well  compare  with 
that  of  Americans  and  Europeans.  Sometimes  the  young 
players  are  only  too  natural  in  their  parts.  Thus  it  hap¬ 
pened  at  one  performance  that  the  soldiers  whom  King 
Herod  sent  to  murder  the  children  of  Bethlehem  did  not, 
as  directed,  seek  their  victims  in  the  rear  of  the  stage,  but 
rushed  into  the  audience  brandishing  their  wooden  swords 
and  yelling  loudly.  The  Indian  audience  found  nothing 
unbecoming  in  this,  but  were  all  admiration  for  the 
players. 

Equal  talent  is  likewise  found  in  the  Indian  girls. 
However,  they  sometimes  become  very  impatient  under 
correction,  cast  aside  their  roles,  sit  down  and  pout  for 
hours.  Finally  after  much  urging  that  no  efforts  can  be 
too  great  to  glorify  the  Blessed  Savior,  they  begin  again 
with  new  energy.  Naturally,  the  costumes  used  in  these 
plays  are  rich  and  gaudy  according  to  the  fantastic  taste 
of  the  Hindus.  The  nuns  have  done  valuable  work  in 
preparing  costumes. 

Other  Plays. — Convinced  of  the  good  produced  by  these 
plays,  the  missionaries  are  solicitous  to  present  them  not 
only  at  Christmas,  but  also  at  different  seasons  of  the 
year,  especially  in  Lent,  at  Easter  and  Pentecost.  During 
these  seasons  the  subject  of  the  play  is  built  up  on  the 
mystery  commemorated.  For  other  occasions  the  mis¬ 
sionaries  and  catechists  have  dramatized  subjects  from  the 


THE  MISSIONARY  AND  HIS  WORK 


221 


Bible,  from  Church  History,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  etc. 
Joseph  of  Egypt ,  Daniel ,  Tobias ,  The  Prodigal  Son ,  The 
Diocletian  Persecution ,  Bernadette ,  are  among  the  favor¬ 
ites.  Sometimes  living  tableaus  of  some  Christian  mys¬ 
tery  are  designed  and  explained  by  the  missionary  or 
catechist.  Especially  popular  are  the  tableaus  of  the 
fifteen  mysteries  of  the  rosary.  All  plays  are  in  the 
vernacular  languages,  Hindustani,  Marathi,  Tamil,  etc. 

The  mission  theater  demands  much  of  the  missionary’s 
time,  for  often  he  himself  composes  the  play;  but  if  he 
does  not,  at  least  the  selection,  distribution  of  roles,  coach¬ 
ing  the  players  and  general  management  devolve  on  him. 
However,  since  the  Christians  learn  more  from  these  plays 
than  from  the  catechetical  instruction ;  and  since  the 
heathen,  too,  flock  in  great  numbers  to  the  Christian  natak 
and  tamasha,  the  missionary  finds  his  weary  efforts  of 
stage-managing  amply  rewarded.18 

Insincerity  of  Some  Converts. — Not  all  who  waved 
palms  and  shouted  hosannas  on  the  first  Palm  Sunday 
were  true  followers  of  Christ.  Many  a  tongue  that  pro¬ 
claimed  His  triumph  on  the  first  day  of  the  week  clamored 
for  His  Blood  on  Good  Friday.  In  like  manner  many 
natives  of  India  who  beg  the  saving  waters  of  baptism  are 
loath  to  lead  a  life  corresponding  to  Christian  standards. 
A  variety  of  motives  may  induce  the  Indians  to  convert. 
To  many  of  them  we  may  apply  the  words  Christ  spoke  to 
the  multitudes,  “You  seek  Me,  because  you  did  eat  of  the 
loaves  and  fishes  and  were  filled.”  Food,  money,  employ¬ 
ment  on  the  mission  farm,  hope  of  gratuitous  education, 
increase  of  respectability  among  their  Christian  neighbors 
are  often  great  temptations  for  the  Hindu.  Not  seldom 
the  missionary  becomes  aware  that  the  most  promising 
catechumen  turns  out  to  be  the  worst  Christian,  or  re¬ 
lapses  into  the  state  out  of  which,  perhaps,  he  may  never 
have  whole-heartedly  emerged. 

Others,  again,  whose  sincerity  seems  unquestionable  are 

18  Die  katholischen  Missionen ,  Freiburg,  Vol.  XLVI,  pp.  8-12. 


222 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


most  crafty  hypocrites  whose  sole  purpose  in  espousing 
Christianity  is  to  burden  the  mission  with  their  heavy 
debts.  Although  real,  genuine  conversions  are  hard  to 
make,  and  not  all  converts  withstand  the  hardships  in¬ 
variably  met  with  on  becoming  Christians,  yet  there  are 
many  cases  on  record  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Calcutta,  the 
Diocese  of  Lahore  and  others,  when  whole  villages  were 
won  over  to  Christianity. 

In  some  districts  zeal  for  the  conversion  of  the  pagan 
brethren  is  a  rare  virtue  among  native  converts.  The 
Very  Rev.  Fr.  Felix  Finck,  O.  M.  Cap.,  of  Lahore,  has 
this  to  say  of  his  Christians:  “The  Catholics  of  Bettiah 
are  descendants  of  Christians,  and  strangely  enough  they 
are  not  interested  in  the  conversion  of  their  pagan  neigh¬ 
bors.  One  does  not  find  among  them  the  enthusiasm  for 
proselyting,  noticeable  among  the  new  converts  at  Delhi 
and  Panyali.”  19 

Missionary  Joy. — However,  almost  every  missionary 
can  relate  with  deep  satisfaction  and  joy  instances  of 
fervid  loyalty  to  the  Faith,  to  the  sacraments  and  to 
prayer.  Touching,  indeed,  is  the  following  example  told 
by  the  Rev.  Knockert,  S.  J.,  of  Torpa,  Western  Bengal, 
respecting  the  devotion  to  Holy  Communion  animating 
his  converts:  “I  was  deeply  moved  to  see  them  all  so 
collected  when  the  priest  came  down  from  the  altar  to 
distribute  Holy  Communion.  Then  suddenly  they  raised 
their  voices  in  a  hymn  of  thanksgiving,  ‘Magnificat  P 
.  .  .  I  made  a  special  point  of  observing  the  school  chil¬ 
dren.  After  receiving  Holy  Communion  they  would 
kneel  at  their  places,  bury  their  faces  in  their  hands  for 
some  time  and  then  take  up  their  prayer  books.  They 
deported  themselves  in  all  with  such  simplicity  and  devo¬ 
tion  that,  to  my  great  joy,  I  could  see  that  these  children 
do  realize  some  of  the  mysterious  greatness  of  the  Sacra¬ 
ment.”  20 

™  Catholic  Missions ,  N.  Y.,  Vol.  XIII,  1919,  p.  232. 

"  Joseph  Spieler,  P.  S.  M.,  op.  c.,  p.  164. 


THE  MISSIONARY  AND  HIS  WORK 


223 


From  this  description  of  the  Indian  missionary  and  hi3 
work  we  readily  agree  with  our  late  Pope  Benedict  XV., 
who  pleaded  for  missionaries  of  irreproachable  life,  men 
well-grounded  in  virtue,  who  pale  not  before  heroic  sacri¬ 
fices.  However,  let  the  reader  not  imagine  that  life  in  the 
missions  is  one  devoid  of  sunshine.  Conversions,  however 
few,  are,  nevertheless,  always  in  the  making,  and  each  step 
that  advances  the  neophyte  to  Christ  brings  nameless  joy, 
consolation  and  courage  to  every  missionary,  especially 
to  the  Father  who,  under  God,  has  been  instrumental  in 
effecting  the  conversion.  In  fine,  the  daily  meditation,  the 
constant  realization  of  his  office  of  an  “alter  Christus” 
(another  Christ),  the  abiding  hope  of  the  Exceeding 
great  reward,”  tide  the  missionary  over  his  many  diffi¬ 
culties  and  sweeten  his  daily  burden  of  the  cross. 


CHAPTER  II 


THE  CATECHISTS 

The  indispensable  assistant  of  the  missionary  is  the 
catechist.  A  little  knowledge  of  the  recent  history  of 
missionary  endeavor  and  a  glance  at  missionary  statistics 
will  show  ns  that  the  native  catechist  is  an  all-important 
factor ;  that  his  help  is  one  of  the  most  effective  means  of 
progress  in  mission  work.  The  missions  that  boast  of  the 
most  and  best-trained  catechists  also  report  the  greatest 
success,  whereas  progress  is  slow  in  those  missions  which 
have  but  few  or  no  catechists. 

Most  Vital  Problem. — In  all  truth,  it  may  be  said  that 
one  of  the  most  vital  problems  and  greatest  needs  of  India 
to-day  is  that  of  educated,  unselfish,  zealous  catechists. 
If  India  is  to  be  converted^  the  ranks  of  the  catechists  will 
have  to  be  increased  by  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands 
of  recruits.  There  is  more  than  a  grain  of  truth  in  the 
words  of  Bishop  Legrand  of  Dacca:  “If  I  had  10,000 
Catechists,  I  would  allot  2,000  pagans  to  each,  and  Bengal 
would  soon  be  at  the  foot  of  the  Cross.”  These  same 
words  might  well  be  applied  to  the  whole  of  India.  The 
conversion  of  India  depends  in  great  measure  upon  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  native  catechists. 

Great  Value  of  Catechists. — No  one  realizes  more  the 
value  of  good  catechists  than  does  the  missionary  himself. 
The  following  extract  from  a  letter  of  a  missionary  speaks 
for  itself:  “Send  me  nothing  for  myself,  but  in  the  name 
of  Jesus  Christ  procure  me  all  the  help  you  can  to  keep 
up  my  catechists.  I  feel  inexpressible  sorrow  when  hun¬ 
dreds  of  idolators  ask  for  instructors  and  I  am  too  poor 
to  send  them  any,”  i.e.,  catechists.  The  catechist  is, 

224 


THE  CATECHISTS 


225 


indeed,  the  missionary’s  “alter  ego,”  his  “right  hand.” 
He  is  “an  indispensable  cog  in  the  Missionary  machin¬ 
ery.”  A  mission  without  catechists  is  no  complete  mis¬ 
sion,  for  it  lacks  one  of  its  most  important  parts.  In  his 
article,  The  Catechist  in  Mission  Countries ,  the  Kt.  Rev. 
F.  Demange,  P.  F.  M.,  says :  “The  trouble  is  that  Cath¬ 
olics  in  Europe  and  America  do  not  realize  how  all- 
important  catechists  are  to  the  success  of  the  mission ; 
they  place  the  work  of  catechists  as  of  secondary  impor¬ 
tance  while  it  really  takes  first  place.  Almost  nothing  can 
be  accomplished  without  these  able  and  devoted  assist¬ 
ants.”  1  “A  catechist  in  India  is  a  missionary  in  every 
sense  that  an  unordained  person  can  be.  His  work  has 
become  a  profession  and  vocation,  to  which  native  Catholic 
men  consecrate  their  lives  and  entire  time.”  2 3  The 
native  catechist,  as  a  rule,  has  an  advantage  over  the 
foreigner  in  this,  that  he  can  more  easily  gain  access  to  the 
natives,  understands  better  their  minds,  longings  and 
needs,  and  is  thus  able  to  bring  a  greater  number  of  souls 
to  the  one  true  fold. 

Great  Need  of  More  Catechists. — -If  in  a  well-ordered 
parish  the  pastor  cannot  dispense  with  his  religious  and 
lay  teachers,  how  then  can  a  missionary  in  a  foreign 
country  cope  single-handed  with  problems  that  are  far 
greater  and  more  complicated  ?  Ever  and  anon  we  hear 
the  complaints  of  missionary  bishops  and  religious  supe¬ 
riors  that  the  number  of  priests  in  India  is  entirely  insuffi¬ 
cient.  Indeed,  how  can  one  missionary  attend  to  the 
needs  of  Christians  scattered  about  in  thirty  or  forty 
different  villages,  over  an  area  of  250  or  300  and  more 
square  miles?  There  are  the  sick  and  the  poor  to  aid, 
the  children  to  be  baptized,  catechumens  to  be  instructed, 
lost  sheep  to  be  found  again,  disputes  and  strifes  to 
be  settled,  Christians  to  be  prepared  for  the  sacraments 

1  The  Catechist  in  Mission  Countries ,  Society  for  the  Propagation 

of  the  Faith,  New  York,  p.  8. 

3  The  Bengal  Mission,  Notre  Dame,  Indiana,  1919,  p.  9. 


226 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


and  the  dying  to  he  assisted.  These  are  only  a  few  of  the 
priest’s  duties  among  his  people.  But  there  are  also  other 
sheep  not  of  the  flock,  the  pagans,  who  should  take  up  a 
good  deal  of  his  time.  To  attend  to  all  these  matters  is 
simply  impossible  unless  the  priest  has  capable  assistants. 
These  assistants  are  none  other  than  well-trained  cate¬ 
chists.  No  priest  or  “missionary  who  has  at  heart  the 
evangelization  of  the  heathen,  or  who  cares  to  have  his  own 
people  regularly  instructed  and  looked  after,  can  dispense 
with  the  services  of  a  catechist.  The  knowledge  he  has  of 
the  people  and  the  support  of  his  presence  amongst  them 
will  help  to  effect  much  that  the  priest  for  want  of  better 
knowledge  of  them  and  of  sympathy  with  their  needs  may 
not  be  capable  of  doing.”  3  Protestants  have  recognized 
this  need  long  ago  and  the  success  of  their  missions  is  due 
directly  to  their  large  company  of  lay  assistants,  whom 
they  hire  at  will,  and  to  whom  they  pay  adequate  salaries. 

The  Catechist's  Work. — The  catechist’s  work  is  mani¬ 
fold.  He  does  not  only  teach  catechism.  There  are  a 
hundred  and  one  other  jobs  that  fall  to  his  lot,  the  per¬ 
formance  of  which  greatly  lightens  the  many  and  trying 
burdens  of  the  missionary.  Primarily,  however,  the  cate¬ 
chist  is  the  official  representative  and  precursor  of  the 
missionary  priest  among  his  fellow-countrymen  in  distant 
villages.  Like  John  the  Baptist  he  goes  before  and  pre¬ 
pares  the  way  for  the  coming  of  the  Word  of  God. 

The  missionary  cannot  expect  immediately  upon  his 
arrival  to  go  out  into  the  wilds  of  the  country,  gather 
about  him  crowds  of  savages,  give  them  a  few  short  in¬ 
structions  and  have  them  falling  at  his  feet  begging  for 
the  regenerating  waters  of  baptism.  The  missionary 
must  first  gain  the  sympathy  of  the  people  and  this  is  no 
slight  task.  This  is  generally  done  through  the  catechist. 
The  native  is  willing  to  listen,  but  stubborn  and  slow  in 
bending  his  proud  neck  to  the  sweet  yoke  of  Christianity. 

a  Joseph  Carroll,  O.  S.  F.  C.,  Our  Missionary  Life  in  India,  Alla¬ 
habad,  1917,  p.  156. 


Capuchin  Missionaries  with  Catechists  and  School  Teachers. 


THE  CATECHISTS 


227 


The  catechist  is  better  equipped,  in  many  cases,  than  is 
the  foreign  priest  to  prepare  the  people  for  the  Gospel  of 
Christ.  The  natives  take  more  readily  to  him  and  con¬ 
verse  with  him  more  freely  since  he  is  one  of  their  own 
kind,  belonging  to  a  caste  at  least  as  high  as  theirs  if  not 
higher.  Being  well  acquainted  with  their  language  and 
dialects,  their  customs,  conventions,  etiquette  and  forms 
of  respect  usually  observed  by  the  various  classes,  he  easily 
gains  a  hearing  and  the  confidence  of  the  people.  All 
these  factors  help  much  to  overcome  the  religious  stub¬ 
bornness  and  prejudice. 

Catechists  in  Schools. — The  conversion  of  thousands 
and  thousands  of  natives  may  be  traced  back  to  the  schools 
so  well  conducted  by  the  catechists  under  the  supervision 
of  the  missionaries.  There  are  many  natives  who  will 
hear  nothing  of  the  Christian  Religion  but  who  have  not 
the  least  scruple  about  sending  their  children  to  schools 
conducted  under  Catholic  auspices.  The  good  influences 
are  not  long  in  making  themselves  felt.  After  the  children 
have  attended  the  school  for  some  time  the  parents  see  the 
wholesome  effects  of  a  thorough  Christian  education. 
Their  esteem  of  Christian  education  grows  as  time  goes 
on,  and  as  a  consequence  they  put  greater  faith  and  trust 
in  the  teachers,  the  catechists  themselves.  In  school  the 
catechists  implant  the  seeds  of  Catholic  faith  and  morals. 
Hindu  children  love  to  read  the  Bible  history  and  cate¬ 
chism.  The  teacher  explains  the  truths  contained  in 
these  books,  illustrates  the  principles  of  Catholic  doctrine 
by  appropriate  examples,  pictures  and  a  practical  applica¬ 
tion  to  the  Hindu’s  everyday  life.  The  children  go  home 
from  school  and  relate  what  they  have  heard.  The  curi¬ 
osity  of  the  parents  is  aroused  and  soon  they  also  come  to 
hear  for  themselves  what  the  catechist  has  to  say.  This  is 
the  catechist’s  great  chance,  and  he  is  not  slow  in  making 
use  of  such  favorable  opportunities.  By  means  of  biblical 
pictures  in  gay  colors,  of  which  the  natives  are  very  fond, 
he  makes  clear  to  them  what  the  Catholic  Religion  is,  and 


228 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


what  it  is  not.  The  tenor  of  his  instructions  is,  as  a  rule, 
not  disputatious  or  controversial,  hut  explanatory.  The 
truths  of  Catholic  faith  and  morals  are  so  convincing  and 
sublime  that  a  simple  but  thorough  explanation  of  them 
will  bring  about  the  best  results,  and  the  catechist  need 
seldom  stoop  to  the  use  of  controversy.  When  he  does 
meet  with  such  as  would  contend  with  him  over  religious 
questions,  he  refers  the  conscientious  objector  to  the  priest, 
who  then  takes  him  in  hand  and  solves  his  difficulties. 

Various  Kinds  of  Catechists. — There  are  various  kinds 
of  catechists,  such  as  the  village  catechist,  the  evangelist 
or  touring  catechist,  and  the  circle  catechist.  The  work  of 
these  various  classes  differs  greatly  as  time  and  circum¬ 
stances  call  for,  but  on  the  whole  their  work  is  much  the 
same. 

The  Village  Catechist. — The  village  catechist,  or  the 
catechist  who  resides  in  a  Christian  colony,  has  sufficient 
work  to  keep  him  busy  from  morning  to  night.  His  prin¬ 
cipal  occupation,  is  teaching  the  catechism  and  other 
branches  of  the  lower  schools.  Over  and  above  the  in¬ 
structions  given  to  the  children  of  the  schools  and  those 
preparing  to  receive  the  sacraments,  he  attends  to  many 
temporal  needs  of  the  natives.  He  visits  the  sick,  looks 
after  the  poor,  the  aged  and  crippled ;  helps  the  Christians 
on  the  farms  and  teaches  them  better,  more  systematic 
and  more  remunerative  methods  in  agriculture.  “As  a 
member  of  the  local  vestry-board/7  Very  Hev.  Joseph 
Carroll,  O.  M.  Cap.,  says,  “he  may  help  the  Father  in  the 
administration  of  church  funds.  He  is  the  spokesman  of 
the  community,  the  guardian  of  its  chapel  and  school,  and 
the  responsible  superintendent  of  public  morality  and 
daily  worship  in  the  absence  of  the  priest.  In  his  isolated 
post  he  bears  from  day  to  day  the  burden  of  the  work 
through  good  report  and  ill.77  As  a  rule  he  is  a  man  of 
some  intellectual  power,  of  sound  judgment  and  spiritual 
character.  Being  discreet  in  his  utterings,  and  obliging 
to  all  who  seek  his  help,  he  is  a  benefit  to  the  whole  local- 


THE  CATECHISTS 


229 


ity.  His  unselfish  labors  in  behalf  of  the  people  soon 
gain  for  him  the  esteem  of  the  heathen.  Religious  preju¬ 
dice  gives  way,  and  one  after  the  other  the  heathens  come 
for  instruction  in  the  Christian  Religion. 

The  Touring  Catechist . — The  evangelist,  or  touring 
catechist,  is,  so  to  say,  the  forerunner  of  the  priest.  He 
visits  the  towns  and  villages  in  which  a  missionary  has 
never  or  rarely  been  seen.  He  goes  about  speaking  to 
the  heathen  wherever  he  may  find  them;  he  associates 
freely  with  his  equals  in  caste,  attends  their  meetings  and 
social  gatherings.  His  interesting  talks  gain  him  an  easy 
hearing.  Gradually  he  leads  over  to  religion.  He  ex¬ 
plains,  instructs  and  refutes,  all  in  a  most  prudent  and 
gentlemanly  manner.  Then  he  portrays  the  beauty  of 
Catholic  doctrine  and  Christian  life,  points  out  the  ex¬ 
cellency  and  beauty  of  virtue  and  the  evil  consequences  of 
vice  and  sin.  The  heathen  is  so  taken  up  with  the  words 
of  the  teacher  and  his  new  doctrine  that  he  is  loath  to  see 
him  depart  so  soon,  and  anxiously  awaits  the  catechist’s 
return.  To  be  sure,  the  catechist  returns  in  due  time. 

Naturally  the  catechist  must  be  a  man  who  is  well 
versed  in  Catholic  faith  and  morals.  Furthermore,  he 
must  know  what  are  the  religious  views  and  tendencies  of 
his  hearers,  for  he  must  refute  and  fight  them  on  their  own 
ground. 

When  the  catechist  has  set  one  village  a-thinking,  he 
wanders  to  the  next  and  there  sets  his  machinery  in 
operation  again.  When  he  has  made  the  rounds  of  a 
given  number  of  hamlets  and  towns  he  returns  to  the 
central  station  where  the  priest  resides.  To  him  he  makes 
report  of  the  conditions  in  the  villages  visited  and  tells 
him  which  corners  and  sections  of  the  vineyard  are  ready 
for  his  coming,  and  which  are  not.  The  priest  then  goes 
out  into  the  fields  sown  with  the  good  seed,  quickening  and 
enlivening  the  fruit,  and  brings  in  the  harvest. 

The  Circle  Catechist.-^- The  circle  catechist  accom¬ 
panies  the  missionary  on  all  his  apostolic  journeys.  Like 


230 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


that  of  the  missionary,  his  is  a  busy  life.  He  is  the 
priest’s  clerk  and  secretary;  in  school  he  acts  as  teacher 
and  examiner ;  in  church  he  functions  as  j  anitor,  sacristan 
and  choir-director,  and  at  solemn  Mass,  as  master  of 
ceremonies.  In  public  affairs  he  acts  in  turn  as  prose¬ 
cutor,  counsel  and  juryman.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  a  good 
circle  catechist  is  called  upon  to  do  almost  anything  and 
everything  as  circumstance  and  necessity  demand. 

Another  point  much  in  favor  of  the  circle  catechist,  but 
rarely  touched  upon,  and  most  vital  to  the  success  of  the 
missionary,  is  this :  the  circle  catechist  “is  a  living  witness 
to  the  sobriety  and  abstemiousness  of  the  missionary’s 
life.  The  priest  is  a  stranger  whose  celibacy  is  hardly 
credible  to  pagans,  and  indeed  they  are  often  slow  to  be¬ 
lieve  in  it.  But  the  catechist  is  the  priest’s  inseparable 
companion;  he  dwells  in  the  same  house;  he  sleeps  in  the 
next  room ;  he  goes  with  him  on  journeys ;  he  is  ever  at 
the  side  of  this  unique  person  who  is  so  apart  from  other 
men,  and  he  can  truthfully  give  testimony  to  the  perfec¬ 
tion  and  self-denial  of  the  apostolic  life.”  4 

Women  Catechists. — The  work  of  the  catechist  is  not 
restricted  exclusively  to  the  male  sex.  Women  are  also 
successfully  employed  in  the  spread  of  the  Gospel.  The 
“Bible-woman”  of  the  Protestant  missions  is  one  of  their 
best  agents.  At  present  India’s  missions  boast  of  but  a 
small  number  of  Catholic  women  catechists.  These  are 
principally  the  wives  of  men  catechists.  They  are  espe¬ 
cially  adapted  to  the  teaching  of  women.  They  know,  even 
better  than  the  nuns,  how  to  work  their  way  into  the  home 
and  gain  the  affections  of  the  mothers.  They  visit  the  sick 
and  needy  in  their  dwellings;  give  useful  hints  to  the 
mother  regarding  the  home,  family  and  rearing  of  her 
children.  Those  of  them  who  have  been  taught  something 
of  nursing  and  medicine  can  do  untold  good  in  a  com¬ 
munity  and  are  always  welcome  visitors.  Having  gained 

4  The  Catechist  in  Mission  Countries,  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  the  Faith,  N.  Y.,  p.  4. 


THE  CATECHISTS 


231 


the  mothers’  confidence  and  love  by  ministering  to  their 
bodily  ills,  the  way  is  also  prepared  for  the  ministering  to 
their  spiritual  wants.  Like  the  male  catechists,  these 
women  have  the  duty  of  assembling  the  female  converts  of 
the  village  or  colony  for  their  regular  religious  instruc¬ 
tions  and  of  seeing  that  they  attend  Mass  and  receive  the 
sacraments.  It  would  be  a  great  asset  to  the  missionary 
if  the  communities  of  nuns  would  take  in  and  educate 
women  to  be  good  catechists. 

Wages. — The  catechist  class  has  as  yet  not  been  union¬ 
ized.  It  has  not  clamored  for  a  six  or  eight  hour  day,  nor 
for  higher  wages.  The  catechist  is  not  mercenary,  but, 
like  the  priest,  is  in  need  of  food,  raiment  and  shelter ;  he 
is  willing  to  work  ten,  twelve  and,  if  necessary,  fifteen 
hours  a  day  and  considers  fifteen  dollars  a  month  very 
good  wages.  Many  work  for  less,  some  for  the  small 
amount  of  five  dollars  a  month.5  And  vocations  are  not 
wanting.  But  there  is  a  lack  of  financial  resources.  The 
entire  question  of  catechists  resolves  itself  into  a  matter 
of  dollars  and  cents.  Thousands  of  catechists  could  be  put 
into  the  field,  within  short  notice,  if  missionaries  only  had 
the  wherewithal  to  support  them. 

Training  of  Catechists. — From  what  has  been  said  of 
the  catechist  and  his  work  we  can  gather  that  he  must  be  a 
man  who  has  enjoyed  an  education  superior  to  that  of 
the  people  among  whom  he  labors.  He  must,  above  all,  be 
well  instructed  in  the  truths  of  his  own  Religion  if  he 
would  teach  others,  else  we  should  have  a  repetition  of  the 
blind  leading  the  blind.  In  former  years,  and  in  many 
places  even  to-day,  the  training  of  catechists  is  haphazard. 
The  reason  is  to  be  found  in  the  dearth  of  priests,  and 
especially  of — funds. 

Training  Schools. — Where  there  are  no  training 
schools  the  missionary,  who  is  more  than  busy  from  sunrise 
to  sunset,  must  train  his  own  catechists,  wherever  and 
whenever  he  has  a  few  spare  moments.  Ho  one  realizes 
6  The  Bengal  Mission,  Notre  Dame,  Indiana,  1919,  p.  11. 


232 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


more  than  the  missionary  himself  that  there  is  little  system 
and  thoroughness  in  an  education  given  in  such  a  way 
and  at  such  irregular  intervals.  But  the  missionary  makes 
the  best  of  his  time  and  talents  and  hopes  for  better  days. 

Within  recent  years,  however,  there  has  been  a  forward 
movement  in  the  education  of  catechists.  Special  training 
schools  have  been  and  are  being  erected  which  have  as  sole 
purpose  the  proper  education  of  native  Catholic  men  who 
wish  to  devote  their  time  and  their  lives  to  the  conversion 
of  their  fellow-countrymen.  These  training  schools  are 
conducted  by  missionary  priests.  The  buildings  them¬ 
selves  are  plain  in  the  extreme,  comprising  living  rooms, 
a  large  dormitory,  infirmary  and  kitchen.  The  meals  are 
also  plain,  but  substantial.  The  clothing  of  the  candi¬ 
dates  is  simple,  and  a  straw  mat  with  one  blanket  is  all 
these  natives  require  for  their  beds. 

Routine  and  Training  Schools. — The  order  of  the  day 
is  well  defined  and  strictly  observed.  After  rising  and 
washing  and  getting  their  beds  in  order  all  candidates 
attend  Holy  Mass,  and  usually  receive  Holy  Communion. 
Before  going  to  the  class  room  they  have  about  an  hour’s 
work  in  the  garden.  Class  hours  last  from  nine  to  four, 
with  about  one  and  one-half  hours’  intermission. 

Besides  the  branches  demanded  by  the  Government, 
special  instructions  are  given  in  catechism  and  Bible  his¬ 
tory.  A  thorough  knowledge  of  the  catechism  is  indis¬ 
pensable.  Hence  much  time  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  this 
subject.  The  students  are  also  made  acquainted  with  the 
inborn  prejudices  of  the  heathen  mind  so  that  they  may 
the  better  meet  the  native’s  difficulties.  In  the  afternoon 
the  rosary  is  recited  in  common  either  in  the  church  or 
school.  Then  follows  an  hour  of  recreation  either  in  the 
shape  of  some  game  or  in  useful  occupation.  Those  fur¬ 
ther  advanced  often  assist  in  the  church  as  sacristans  or 
janitors;  while  some  give  instructions  to  catechumens. 

The  spiritual  advancement  of  the  catechist  is  not  lost 
sight  of  or  neglected.  Daily  Communion,  the  practice  of 


THE  CATECHISTS  233 

virtue  and  tlie  spirit  of  prayer  are  fostered,  and  the  good 
fruits  are  evident. 

The  education  of  the  candidates  covers  a  period  of  from 
six  to  eight  years.  FTor  is  he  sent  out  immediately  after 
he  has  been  emancipated  from  the  rules  and  regulations  of 
the  training  school.  For  some  time  the  graduate  works 
under  the  direct  supervision  of  the  missionary,  where  his 
doings  can  be  observed.  During  this  preliminary  practi¬ 
cal  probation,  or  immediately  succeeding  it,  the  catechist 
is  married,  and  then  only  does  he  take  up  his  catechetical 
work  in  some  forsaken  village  or  hamlet.  At  stated  times 
all  the  catechists  come  together  at  the  central  mission 
station  where  they  make  report  of  their  work,  receive 
their  wages  and  further  instructions  and  practical  hints. 

The  value  of  training  schools  cannot  be  overestimated. 
The  education  they  impart  meets  present-day  needs  and 
difficulties.  Missionaries  depend  upon  their  catechists 
and  the  catechists  depend  upon  training  schools.  Voca¬ 
tions  are  not  lacking  but — funds  are  sorely  needed.  It 
requires  but  the  small  amount  of  thirty  dollars  to  maintain 
a  catechist  in  the  preparatory  school  and  sixty  dollars  in 
the  training  school  for  one  year,  and  yet  these  small  sums 
cannot  be  raised  in  sufficient  amounts  to  supply  the  mis¬ 
sionaries  with  able  bands  of  catechists.  Training  schools 
for  catechists  are  a  crying  need  of  India’s  missions  of 
to-day.  They  are  the  quickest  solution  to  the  great  prob¬ 
lem — India's  Conveesion. 


CHAPTER  III 


SCHOOLS  AND  PERIODICALS 

Education  in  India,  as  one  of  the  missionaries  ex¬ 
pressed  it,  “means  formation,  reformation  and  transfor¬ 
mation,  brought  about  by  instruction,  supervision,  good 
example  and  whatever  a  good  teacher  does  for  his 
pupils.”  1  Catholic  missionaries  in  India  are  conducting 
extensive  work  along  educational  lines  and  they  would  be 
doing  more  were  it  not  for  the  many  obstacles  that  con¬ 
front  them. 

External  Hindrances. — One  of  the  most  perplexing 
problems  of  the  teachers  is  the  caste  system.  A  pariah  is 
not  allowed  to  sit  on  the  same  school  bench  with  a  Brah¬ 
man.  A  Mussulman  would  feel  deeply  wronged  if  he 
were  placed  beside  a  member  of  a  lower  caste  in  the  dining 
room.  The  noble  sons  of  India  must  have  a  separate  dor¬ 
mitory,  study  hall  and  other  apartments  reserved  for  their 
own  use.  In  our  democratic  country  Jenny  Green,  daugh¬ 
ter  of  Pat  Green,  the  mill-hand,  sits  beside  Rosemary 
Anna  Le  Grande,  daughter  of  the  steel  king.  Rosemary 
even  gives  Jenny  a  bite  of  her  apple.  But  in  India — 
there  is  a  difference. 

Character  of  the  Brahmans. — These  are  merely  exter¬ 
nal  hindrances  to  education.  The  consequences  of  these 
usurped  privileges  on  the  nature  and  character  of  the 
favored  sons  of  Brahma  are  a  much  greater  foe.  The 
Brahmans  have  arrogantly  assumed  rights  and  privileges 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  common  people  look  upon  them 
as  gods  and  are  so  obsessed  by  these  ideas  that  they  show  a 

*J.  C.  Houpert,  S.  J.,  The  Madura  Mission  Manual,  Trichinopoly, 
1916,  p.  156. 


234 


SCHOOLS  AND  PERIODICALS  235 

greater  reverence  and  respect  to  the  Brahmans  than  many 
men  have  for  the  true  God.  The  characteristic  fault  of 
the  Brahmans  is  their  deep-seated  pride.  They  look  upon 
the  missionary  as  a  member  of  a  lower  caste.  It  is  a 
known  fact  that  young  men  have  stood  outside  a  class 
room  window  for  days  to  listen  and  see  if  the  professor 
knew  more  than  they  did.  When  they  discover  that  others 
than  Brahmans  have  great  wisdom  they  attribute  it  to  the 
fact  that  they  are  “Brahmans  from  the  West/’  as  if  no 
one  but  a  son  of  Brahma  could  have  knowledge. 

A  Further  Hindrance . — A  second  though,  perhaps,  a 
minor  obstacle  to  Catholic  education  in  India  is  the  preju¬ 
dice  of  these  people  against  the  Catholic  Religion.  They 
attend  Catholic  schools  and  are  satisfied  with  the  tutors, 
but  they  are  rather  sensitive  on  religious  questions.  Under 
such  circumstances,  Fr.  Hull  says,  “religious  instruction 
is  given  apart  to  the  Catholic  pupils;  but  the  slightest 
show  of  propagandism  has  to  be  avoided  with  regard  to 
the  others.”  2  This,  however,  hardly  implies  that  all 
reflections  on  Catholic  doctrine  are  barred  from  the  classes 
attended  by  both  Christians  and  pagans.  The  Catholic 
Religion,  it  is  true,  is  not  thrust  upon  non-Catholics  and 
non-Christians  in  a  dogmatic  manner,  but  they  are  to 
“understand,”  says  Very  Rev.  Joseph  Carroll,  “that  their 
presence  will  not  be  considered  when  it  is  thought  proper 
to  refer  directly  or  indirectly  to  a  question  of  religion.”  3 
On  the  same  page  this  missionary  continues:  “We  (Cath¬ 
olic  missionaries)  yield  sufficiently  to  their  cherished  dis¬ 
likes  by  not  insisting  on  their  following  our  routine  and 
being  taught  our  belief.”  The  fact  that  non-Catholics 
and  non-Christians  attend  the  Catholic  schools  in  India 

(may  indeed  be  considered  a  hindrance  to  Catholic  educa¬ 
tion.  Although,  perhaps,  it  is  only  a  minor  one,  never¬ 
theless  it  is  and  remains  a  hindrance  in  so  far  that  great 
prudence  is  required  on  the  part  of  the  teachers  lest  they 
2  Catholic  Encyclopedia ,  Vol.  VII,  p.  732. 

3  Joseph  Carroll,  0.  S.  F.  C.,  Our  Missionary  Life  in  India,  Alla¬ 
habad,  1917,  p.  301. 


236 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


offend  their  non-Catholic  and  non-Christian  pupils  and 
thereby  increase  their  already  strong  prejudice. 

Overcoming  Obstacles. — These  are  but  some  of  the 
hindrances  which  the  missionary  meets  in  his  endeavor  to 
teach  the  Indian.  Is  there  no  way,  no  means  of  combat¬ 
ing  these  evils?  There  is  but  one — an  education  that  is 
diametrically  opposed  in  its  principles  to  the  false  maxims 
handed  down  for  ages  in  India.  The  education  of  the 
Indian  must  aim  to  prove  that  men  as  men  are  born  equal. 
The  Indian  must  be  taught  that  God  formed  all  men  of 
the  same  earth  and  that  He  created  no  castes.  In  the 
training  of  these  people  the  Catholic  missionaries  are 
endeavoring  to  inculcate  these  principles,  and  these  prin¬ 
ciples  are  beginning  to  strike  root  in  the  minds  of  the 
people,  at  least  among  the  lower  classes. 

First  Step  of  the  Missionary. — The  missionary  after 
long  experience  generally  goes  about  education  somewhat 
in  this  way.  When  he  hears  of  a  place  where  several 
families  are  waiting  for  instruction,  he  sends  a  catechist 
to  prepare  these  people.  When  the  catechist  has  done  his 
work,  the  missionary  comes  to  examine  the  prospective 
Christians.  Those  found  sufficiently  instructed  are  bap¬ 
tized,  and  the  rest  receive  further  instruction. 

Elementary  Schools. — With  these  conversions  a  new 
burden  is  laid  on  the  priest’s  shoulders.  He  must  now 
make  arrangements  for  the  instruction  of  the  children. 
An  elementary  school  will  answer  this  purpose,  and  thus 
the  messenger  of  the  Gospel  starts  about  forming  a  school. 
If  he  can,  he  will  send  a  few  Sisters  to  take  care  of  the 
little  ones.  The  young  minds  and  hearts  of  these  children, 
which  are  but  “wax  to  receive  and  marble  to  retain  im¬ 
pressions,”  need  formation,  reformation  and  transforma¬ 
tion,  and  the  Catholic  Sister  is  the  person  to  undertake 
such  a  task.  By  her  kind  and  motherly  ways  she  slowly 
removes  from  the  young  mind  and  heart  the  false  impres¬ 
sions  stamped  thereon  and  so  by  degrees  prepares  her 
youthful  charges  for  formation. 


Jesuit  Missionaries  with  School  Children 


SCHOOLS  AND  PERIODICALS 


237 


By  many  small  devices,  known  only  to  a  self-sacrificing 
woman,  the  Sister  strives  successfully  to  make  the  school 
a  real  home  for  her  young  proteges.  Four  walls  will 
never  make  a  home.  It  is  love  and  “that  impalpable 
something  we  call  atmosphere  which  puts  the  breath  of  life 
into  hard  matter,  and  makes  a  mere  structure  of  stone  and 
wood  a  vital,  sacred  place.’7  The  neatness,  regularity, 
obedience,  good  example  and  love  practiced  and  inculcated 
by  these  generous-souled  Sisters  are  a  great  factor  in 
educating  the  young.  In  these  schools  built  out  of  love 
for  God  the  children  have  real  home  life,  real  love,  real 
security. 

Curriculum  in  the  Schools. — The  curriculum  of  edu¬ 
cation  comprises  studies  adapted  to  the  minds  of  the  little 
ones.  They  learn  to  read  and  write  their  mother  tongue. 
Religion  and  Bible  history  as  well  as  geography,  profane 
history  and  other  useful  branches  are  taught  by  means  of 
charts,  diagrams  and  pictures.4  The  Indian  loves  gaudy 
colors,  and  pictures  will  make  a  more  lasting  impression 
on  the  young  minds  than  many  and  long  explanations. 
Then,  too,  the  Sisters  give  them  small  tasks  of  helping 
about  the  house,  thereby  laying  the  foundation  for  their 
future  industrial  career. 

Education  of  Women. — After  the  children  have  com¬ 
pleted  their  course  in  the  elementary  school,  if  they  wish 
to  continue  their  education,  they  will  find  middle  schools 
enough  to  satisfy  their  taste.  There  are  forty-one  acade¬ 
mies  for  girls  in  India,  with  an  enrollment  of  approxi¬ 
mately  8,000  students.  The  girls  who  are  allowed  to 
continue  their  education  through  an  academy  are  surely 
fortunate,  for  by  their  elementary  school  education  their 
youthful  minds  have  lost  but  a  few  of  their  pagan  heri¬ 
tages.  The  merely  negative  factor  in  education — the 
uprooting  and  destruction  of  false  ideas — is  only  the  lesser 
part.  Constructive  ideas  must  also  be  brought  home  to 
these  people. 

4  Ibidem,  p.  134. 


238 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


High  Standard  of  the  Academies . — The  curriculum  of 
the  academies  measures  up  to  the  standard  prescribed  by 
the  Government.  The  prizes  taken  annually  by  the  can¬ 
didates  sent  from  the  Sisters’  schools  more  than  vouch  for 
this  fact.  Few  of  those  presented  for  examination  come 
home  unlaureled.  The  girls  have  their  representative 
prize  takers  in  every  branch  taught  in  the  academy.  Lan¬ 
guages,  sciences,  music,  sewing  and  domestic  arts  go  to 
make  up  for  the  most  part  the  program  of  studies  in  these 
institutions  of  learning.  The  missionaries  base  their 
choice  of  studies  on  years  of  experience,  and,  having 
separated  the  chaff  from  the  wheat,  they  allow  only  the 
best  and  most  important  subjects.  The  Sisters  teaching 
these  girls  are  by  no  means  ignorant  women  who  could  not 
teach  in  their  own  native  country.  Only  the  best  teachers 
of  the  community  are  sent  into  the  foreign  missions. 

Good  Example. — But  the  secular  studies  are  the  smaller 
part  in  the  education  of  the  Indian  maiden.  The  Sisters’ 
example  is  the  most  potent  teacher.  The  open  minds  of 
the  young  women  have  been  prepared  to  receive  and  retain 
impressions.  The  Sister  by  her  self-sacrifice,  kindness, 
love,  humility,  purity  and  obedience  makes  an  indelible 
impression  on  the  hearts  and  minds  of  her  youthful 
charges.  She  mixes  with,  and  looks  after,  both  Brahman 
and  pariah.  The  caste  system  puts  no  bars  to  her  activity. 
She  does  not  look  first  to  see  if  it  is  a  child  of  a  higher  or 
lower  caste  who  asks  her  help,  but  hearing  the  call  she  is 
there  on  the  instant  to  meet  the  needs  of  her  charges  with 
motherly  care. 

The  Sisters  are  truly  women  elevated  far  above  the 
Indian  in  education,  refinement  and  manners,  and  yet 
they  stoop  to  become  the  servants  of  all,  aye,  if  necessary, 
they  take  upon  themselves  the  most  menial  and  repulsive 
services. 

From  the  Sisters  the  girls  learn  many  little  ways  of 
becoming  true  Christian  women.  They  have  living  mod¬ 
els  after  which  to  form  their  characters,  which  is,  in  the 


SCHOOLS  AND  PERIODICALS 


239 


final  analysis,  the  end  of  education.  It  was  ex-Senator 
Hoot  who  said:  “The  character  of  the  people,  the  char¬ 
acter  to  which  the  children  are  growing  determines  the 
life  or  death  of  a  nation/7  The  honors  and  praises  be¬ 
stowed  on  the  work  of  Sisters’  schools  by  the  Government 
speak  volumes  and  show  that  they  are  measuring  up  to  the 
required  standard. 

University  Training  for  Women. — There  are  five  secu¬ 
lar  universities  in  India,  all  under  State  Supervision: 
Bombay,  Calcutta,  Madras,  Allahabad  and  Lahore. 
Women  are  eligible  for  admission  to  any  one  of  these  and 
may  assume  the  degrees.  But  in  recent  years  there  has 
been  a  move  on  foot  among  the  Hierarchy  of  India  to 
make  a  Catholic  university  training  also  accessible  to 
women.  His  Grace,  the  late  Archbishop  J uergens  of 
Bombay,  was  the  champion  of  this  movement.  He  had 
been  gaining  the  good  will  of  the  Government  which  was 
absolutely  necessary  for  such  an  enterprise,  when  by  in¬ 
trigue  the  Presbyterians  foiled  his  plans.5  Convinced, 
however,  that  something  should  be  done  for  the  higher  edu¬ 
cation  of  women  the  archbishop  made  arrangements  to 
have  women  at  least  attend  classes  at  the  St.  Xavier’s  Col¬ 
lege  in  Bombay.  The  plan  of  erecting  a  university  for 
women  has  not  been  abandoned  and  we  may  still  hope  that 
India  will  soon  be  blessed  with  such  an  institution. 

Education  of  Men. — The  education  of  boys  and  young 
men  is  in  the  hands  of  priests  and  Brothers.  They  con¬ 
duct  middle  schools,  high  schools  and  colleges.  To  single 
out  a  school  as  a  representative  of  what  the  missionaries 
are  doing,  let  us  consider  St.  Joseph’s  College  at  Trichin- 
opoly,  which  is  under  the  management  of  the  Jesuits. 
The  course  of  this  institution  leads  the  scholars  through 
thirteen  years  of  study,  beginning  with  the  ABC  and 
leading  up  to  differential  calculus.  The  first  four  years 
comprise  the  lower  school.  Boys  from  seven  to  ten  years 
learn  the  three  H’s  plus  English  and  the  Tamil  language. 

0  Die  katholischen  Missionen,  Freiburg,  Vol.  XLV,  1917,  p.  247. 


240 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


The  three  following  years  are  passed  in  the  middle  school, 
while  the  next  two  years  are  devoted  to  high  school  work. 
The  last  period  of  four  years  comprises  real  college  work, 
including  mathematics,  physics,  history,  philosophy,  etc. 
This  college  confers  the  degree  “Bachelor  of  Arts/’  and  a 
number  of  its  alumni  have  gained  the  doctorate  at  the 
university. 

The  good  work  of  the  Catholic  colleges  is  attested  by 
the  fact  that  the  Brahmans,  the  most  obstinate  non- 
Christians,  continue  to  send  their  sons  to  these  institu¬ 
tions.  Although  many  applicants  must  be  refused  for 
want  of  room,  the  Catholic  schools  contain  more  than 
sixty  per  cent  of  the  Anglo-Indian  youth. 

The  Trades. — Besides  the  regular  courses  in  the  higher 
branches  the  Fathers  and  the  Brothers,  for  various  rea¬ 
sons,  give  a  thorough  training  in  the  different  trades. 
Mgr.  Zaleski,  the  sometime  Apostolic  Delegate  to  India, 
insisted  on  a  solid  elementary  education  for  boys.  He 
warned  against  the  rush  for  office  jobs,  which  is  one  of  the 
chief  reasons  why  the  Indian  seeks  a  higher  education. 
For,  since  only  a  few  of  the  thousands  who  apply  for  a 
position  are  accepted,  many  would  be  without  the  means 
of  making  an  honest  living.  It  is  mainly  for  this  reason 
that  the  Fathers  and  Brothers  give  a  thorough  training  in 
the  trades. 

After  a  boy  has  reached  the  age  of  twelve  years  he  is 
given  an  opportunity  to  learn  a  trade.  The  missionaries 
have  shops  for  carpentering,  bookbinding  and  weaving,  and 
to  these  the  boys  are  sent,  if  they  so  desire.  Besides 
these  more  common  trades  the  missionaries  teach  also 
telegraphy,  banking  and  railroading.  The  courses  given 
in  these  branches  are  thorough  and  public  officials  often 
send  in  more  calls  for  workers  than  the  Fathers  and 
Brothers  can  supply.  Farming,  too,  has  a  place  in  the 
education  of  these  people.  In  India  farming  is  a  neces¬ 
sity  and  the  missionary  in  his  attempt  to  give  his  people 
the  best  of  everything,  tries  to  teach  the  Indian  the  latest 


SCHOOLS  AND  PERIODICALS 


241 


methods  in  farming.  He  watches  the  natural  bent  of  his 
scholars,  and  advises  them  in  their  choice  of  a  vocation, 
leaving  them,  however,  at  perfect  liberty  to  follow  their 
own  inclination. 

Very  Rev.  Joseph  Carroll  has  some  interesting  remarks 
on  the  learning  of  trades.  “It  would  be  extremely  selfish,7’ 
he  says,  “to  regard  only  the  present  in  one’s  interest,  and 
have  no  thought  for  the  future  of  those  who  cannot  always 
be  dependent  upon  the  missionary.  Hence  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  suitable  industries  and  the  teaching  of  trades 
and  professions  must  be  regarded  as  an  essential  factor  in 
the  constitution  of  every  colony  that  hopes  to  thrive. 
Oftentimes  the  simplest  industries  are  the  more  suitable  to 
conditions  and  pay  the  best ;  but  whether  they  be  simple 
or  labored,  this  much  is  reasonably  to  be  said,  that  if 
trades  and  professions  are  to  be  worked,  they  must  be 
taught  by  competent  masters  and  managed  under  efficient 
control.”  6 

As  the  girls  benefit  more  from  the  personality  of  the 
Sisters,  so  the  young  men  find  in  their  teachers  living 
examples  on  which  to  model  their  characters.  These 
priests  and  Brothers  possess  every  quality  which  distin¬ 
guishes  a  gentleman,  and  by  their  work  and  toil  try  to 
produce  good  and  loyal  citizens.  They  do  no  proselytiz¬ 
ing.  “The  early  fears  of  proselytizing  have  vanished,  and 
there  are  few  parents  whom  religious  scruples  would  deter 
from  sending  their  children  to  a  mission  school.  It  would 
be  difficult  to  imagine  an  agency  more  helpful  to  Govern¬ 
ment,  more  trusted  by  the  community,  and  more  whole¬ 
some  in  its  educational  influence.”  7 

Catholic  Literature. — The  Press,  too,  may  be  consid¬ 
ered  a  great  factor  in  education,  and  the  missionaries  are 
using  it  in  their  endeavor  to  train  the  Indian.  Non- 
Catholic  missionaries  spread  literature  galore  among  the 
people  whom  they  try  to  win  over  to  their  beliefs.  In 

6  Joseph  Carroll,  O.  S.  F.  C.,  op.  c.,  pp.  137-138. 

7  J.  C.  Houpert,  S.  J.,  op.  a,  p.  159. 


242 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


1912,  127  periodicals  were  edited  by  various  Protestant 
societies  in  India.  This  literature  is  a  power  in  their 
hands.  The  Catholic  messengers  of  the  Gospel  are  also 
active  in  spreading  Catholic  literature  among  the  people, 
but  their  means  do  not  measure  up  to  the  demand.  Yet  in 
spite  of  their  lack  of  money,  they  have  many  books  in 
circulation,  and  are  issuing  a  considerable  number  of 
periodicals. 

The  books  published  by  Catholics  are  mostly  of  a  reli¬ 
gious  character,  and  are  written  in  the  vernacular.  To 
realize  what  great  literary  work  the  missionaries  are  doing 
in  India  it  may  be  well  to  note  that  there  are  more  than 
200  Catholic  books  written  in  the  Telugu  language  alone. 

There  are  over  eighty  Catholic  periodicals  published  in 
India,  Burma  and  Ceylon.  About  forty-five  of  these  are 
English  publications,  of  which  The  Examiner  (Bombay), 
the  Catholic  Leader  (Madras),  the  Catholic  Herald  of 
India  (Calcutta),  The  Bombay  East  Indian ,  The  Simla 
Times ,  the  Jaffna  Catholic  Guardian  and  The  Standard 
(Madras)  are  weeklies.  There  are  eleven  English  month¬ 
lies  ;  the  other  English  papers  are  published  at  intervals 
ranging  between  two  months  and  a  year. 

Besides  these  English  periodicals  there  are  about  thirty- 
five  papers  published  in  the  different  Indian  languages 
and  in  several  of  the  European  languages.8 

The  Indian  Catholic  Dailies. — India  can  boast,  also,  of 
two  Catholic  daily  papers..  The  honor  of  having  founded 
the  first  Catholic  daily  in  India  belongs  to  the  Portuguese 
Catholics  of  Goa.  This  paper,  0  Heraldo ,  is  published  in 
Portuguese.  But  now  English-speaking  Catholics,  too, 
have  a  daily.  The  Trivandrum  Daily  News ,  published  in 
the  capital  city  of  Travancore,  on  the  Malabar  Coast,  has 
been  taken  over  by  a  Catholic  and  will  be  turned  into  a 

8  Catholic  Directory  of  India ,  Burma  and  Ceylon,  1922,  Madras, 
1922,  pp.  309-404.  The  Directory  counts  up  six  weekly  papers  but 
does  not  mention  The  Simla  Times,  and  ten  monthly  papers  without 
giving  the  Catholicus,  a  monthly  published  at  Cawnpore,  Allahabad. 


Mealtime  in  a  Christian  School. 


SCHOOLS  AND  PERIODICALS 


243 


Catholic  daily.  A  committee  of  three  priests  has  been 
appointed  to  direct  the  paper’s  policy  in  religions  affairs 
and  a  Catholic  student  from  Oxford  will  be  editor.9  This 
is  not  the  first  attempt  at  founding  a  Catholic  English 
daily  in  India.  In  1920,  Colonel  P.  O’Gorman  launched 
The  Eastern  Mail  at  Delhi.  This  was  intended  to  be  a 
Catholic  daily,  but  when  the  Colonel  went  to  Europe  on 
account  of  ill  health,  the  paper  seems  to  have  lost  some  of 
its  Catholic  character  and  developed  into  a  semi-Catholic 
daily. 

The  Catholic  Truth  Society . — When  speaking  of  Cath¬ 
olic  literature  in  India  we  may  not  overlook  the  work  of 
the  recently  established  Indian  Catholic  Truth  Society 
(1921).  Er.  C.  Leigh  and  Er.  Lacombe,  both  Jesuits, 
worked  diligently  on  systematizing  and  developing  its 
plan,  and  once  proposed  to  the  Hierarchy  of  India,  it  soon 
had  the  enthusiastic  approval  and  support  of  twenty-seven 
bishops,  numerous  priests  and  many  leading  Catholic  gen¬ 
tlemen.  The  aim  of  the  Indian  Catholic  Truth  Society  is 
to  “propagate  and  place  within  the  reach  of  all,  Catholic 
literature  suited  to  Indian  needs.”  The  need  of  such  a 
society  in  India  is  clear  from  the  words  of  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Angelo  Poli,  O.  M.  Cap.,  Bishop  of  Allahabad,  in  his 
Lenten  Pastoral  of  1920.  “Our  Holy  Religion,”  he  said, 
“is  be-slandered  in  the  public  press  as  well  as  in  private 
and  they  (our  Catholics)  have  no  answer  to  give,  or  have 
not  the  courage  to  speak  it.  All  this  comes  from  want  of 
wider  knowledge  of  their  interests ;  while  this  again  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  they  do  not  read  for  themselves.”  10  The 
Indian  Catholic  Truth  Societv  has  about  1,300  members 
and  has  published  over  sixty  excellent  booklets.11  These 
publications  treat  popular  subjects  and  refute  present-day 
error,  not  in  a  technical  style,  but  in  the  language  of  the 
common  people. 

0  The  Bengalese ,  Washington,  D.  C.,  Vol.  Ill,  1922,  pp.  5-6. 

10  Catlwlicus,  Cawnpore,  India,  Vol.  VII,  1920,  pp.  48  ff. 

11  The  Catholic  Historical  Review ,  Washington,  D.  C.,  Vol.  II  (New 
Series),  1922,  p.  451. 


CHAPTER  IV 


CHARITABLE  AND  SOCIAL  WORK 

It  has  been  aptly  said  by  a  writer  in  one  of  our  Ameri¬ 
can  missionary  magazines  that  it  is  a  characteristic  of 
Catholic  charity  to  do  “its  work  quietly,  without  ostenta¬ 
tion,  screened,  like  Nazareth,  from  the  world’s  view. 
Only  accidentally  does  the  ordinary  citizen  come  upon  it, 
and  then,  indeed,  it  astonishes  and  delights,  like  a  re¬ 
freshing  oasis  in  the  desert.”  Hence  it  is  that  the  heathen 
after  wandering  about  in  the  desert  of  paganism  is  aston¬ 
ished  and  delighted  when  he  comes  upon  the  refreshing 
oasis  of  Christian  charity  in  the  form  of  some  charitable 
establishment.  Can  we  wonder,  then,  that  the  heathen, 
attracted  by  what  he  has  seen  and  moved  by  the  grace  of 
God,  exclaims  with  St.  Peter:  “Lord,  it  is  good  for  us  to 
be  here!”  The  ministers  of  oharity,  the  missionary 
priests  and  religious,  consider  themselves  well  repaid  for 
all  their  deeds  of  heroic  self-denial  if  the  heathen  who 
come  to  them  for  help  learn  to  know  God  and  become  de¬ 
voted  members  of  His  Church.  Little  record  is  kept,  out¬ 
side  the  Book  of  Life,  of  the  many  sacrifices  demanded  of 
these  ministers  of  charity;  consequently  we  may  never 
hope  to  have  in  this  life  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
deeds  of  Catholic  charity.  The  following  pages  will, 
therefore,  reveal  only  in  a  slight  degree  what  is  being  done 
in  India  in  this  direction. 

Early  Institutions. — The  very  first  European  mission¬ 
aries,  who  arrived  in  India  in  the  sixteenth  century,  were 
brought  face  to  face  with  so  much  misery  and  want  that 
they  soon  recognized  a  fruitful  field  for  Christian  charity. 

244 


CHARITABLE  AND  SOCIAL  WORK 


245 


They  accordingly  set  about  building  hospitals  and  orphan¬ 
ages,  in  which  action  they  were  ably  seconded  by  the 
Portuguese  mariners  who  landed  on  the  Indian  coasts. 
The  first  hospital  opened  in  India  was  the  one  at  Punna- 
kayal  by  Fr.  ITenriquez  about  the  year  1550.  This  estab¬ 
lishment  was  placed  under  the  care  of  Captain  Coutinho, 
a  model  Christian,  who  adopted  the  house  as  his  abode 
and  the  sick  as  his  family.  This  manifestation  of  Chris¬ 
tian  charity  was  much  admired  by  the  natives  and  augured 
well  for  the  future  success  of  similar  institutions.  Other 
institutions  soon  sprang  up  in  different  parts  of  the  coun¬ 
try  and  the  future  began  to  brighten,  when  events  took 
place  that  well-nigh  swept  this  branch  of  Christian  en¬ 
deavor  from  the  field.1 

Storm. — Although  the  missionaries  had  by  their  works 
of  charity  aroused  the  admiration  of  the  Hindus,  they 
soon  found  that  they  had  also  aroused  the  fierce  anger  and 
hatred  of  the  Mohammedans.  These  latter  were  not  slow 
to  see  that  the  Church  was  gaining  in  prestige  through  her 
charitable  institutions.  They  accordingly  set  out  and 
destroj^ed  all  the  institutions  that  were  not  defended  by 
the  guns  of  the  Portuguese  sailors,  putting  the  inmates  to 
death  and  so  giving  the  Church  many  martyrs.  As  time 
went  on  the  trials  of  the  missionaries  increased  until  it 
seemed  as  though  charitable  work  would  have  to  be  given 
up  entirely  owing  to  the  lack  of  support  from  Europe 
occasioned  by  the  French  Revolution  and  the  turbulent 
times  that  followed. 

Happily  after  peace  had  been  established  and  the  Por¬ 
tuguese  Schism  had  come  to  an  end,  many  religious  of 
both  sexes  turned  their  steps  towards  India  and  soon  had 
flourishing  hospitals  and  asylums  in  various  parts  of  the 
country.  Rev.  C.  Streit,  S.  V.  D.,  in  his  Atlas  Hierarchi- 
cus  for  1913  credited  India  (including  Burma  and  Cey¬ 
lon)  with  some  forty-eight  hospitals  and  175  dispensaries. 

1 J.  C.  Houpert,  S.  J.,  The  Madura  Mission  Manual ,  Trichinopoly, 
1916,  p.  180. 


246 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


According  to  the  latest  statistics  there  are  at  present  261 
orphanages  with  more  than  14,000  orphans. 

Hospitals — The  Catholic  hospitals  in  India  have  a  two¬ 
fold  purpose,  namely,  to  cure  the  afflicted  bodies  and  to 
help  the  troubled  souls  of  their  patients.  Many  a  man, 
who  while  enjoying  life  and  health  had  cared  little  for  God 
and  His  Church,  was  glad,  when  the  tide  of  life  was  fast 
ebbing  away,  to  be  received  into  the  Catholic  hospital 
where  besides  receiving  medical  relief  he  could  become 
reconciled  to  his  Creator  and  die  in  peace.  Many  a  pagan, 
whose  knowledge  of  our  holy  Religion  was  limited  to  a 
few  false  notions,  was  thoroughly  impressed  by  the 
beauties  of  that  Religion,  when  made  to  feel  the  tender 
ministrations  of  Christian  charity  in  a  Catholic  hospital. 
In  fact,  who  can  enumerate  the  number  of  Hindus  admit¬ 
ted  into  the  Church  and  into  heaven  through  the  portals 
of  the  Catholic  hospitals  ?  The  quiet  peaceful  life  in  the 
hospital,  the  kindness  of  the  Sisters  and  the  beneficent 
influence  exercised  on  the  soul  of  the  pagan  by  the  proxim¬ 
ity  of  Christ  in  the  Real  Presence  all  impress  the  patient 
and  his  relatives  and  ultimately  lead  them  to  embrace  our 
holy  Religion. 

Appreciation  of  the  Government. — That  the  British 
Government  appreciates  the  work  done  by  the  Catholic 
Sisters  can  best  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  the  Sisters  are 
often  called  upon  to  help  in  Government  hospitals.  Re¬ 
cently  the  large  Municipal  Hospital  in  Cuddalore  was 
entrusted  to  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity.  Thor¬ 
oughly  trained  in  the  Pasteur  Institute  of  Paris,  these 
Sisters  are  not  only  efficient  nurses,  but  as  Catholics  they 
are  able  to  help  troubled  souls  as  well  as  cure  afflicted 
bodies.2 

St.  Martha  s  Hospital. — The  well-equipped  hospital  at 
Bangalore,  South  India,  known  as  St.  Martha’s  Hospital, 
is  an  institution  that  may  well  serve  as  a  pattern  for 
similar  establishments  in  India.  Founded  in  1886  by 

2  Catholic  Missions,  N.  Y.,  1920,  Vol.  XIV,  p.  151. 


Sisters  and  Nurses  of  St.  Martha’s  Hospital  at  Bangalore,  South  India. 


CHARITABLE  AND  SOCIAL  WORK 


247 


the  late  Mother  Mary  of  the  Visitation  Leusch,  the  hos¬ 
pital  has  been  continuously  under  the  care  of  the  Good 
Shepherd  nuns.  The  hospital  received  financial  aid  from 
Sir  Sheshadri  Iyer,  a  Brahman,  who  was  head  of  the 
local  Government  at  the  time.  He  arranged  with  the 
Government  to  care  for  the  whole  cost  of  the  medical 
supervision  and  control  of  the  institution.  The  Sisters 
were  placed  in  charge  of  the  general  organization.  This 
plan  was  abandoned  as  impractical  seven  years  later,  the 
Government  agreeing  to  help  the  Sisters  with  a  small 
monthly  grant.  This  new  arrangement  seems  to  be  a 
blessing,  for  the  number  of  patients  treated  annually  has 
steadily  increased  since  the  management  has  been  left  com¬ 
pletely  in  the  hands  of  the  Sisters. 

The  hospital  consists  of  two  large  wards  for  European 
and  Indian  male  patients  and  two  similar  wards  for 
women.  The  average  number  of  patients  treated  daily  in 
these  wards  ranges  from  eighty  to  ninety.  Of  course,  in 
times  of  pressure  the  number  rises  to  the  hundreds.  Med¬ 
ical  treatment,  diet  and  linen  is  supplied  free  of  cost  to 
the  inmates,  who  are  generally  very  poor.  Special  ar¬ 
rangements  are  made  to  respect  the  demands  of  the  caste 
of  the  patients  in  regard  to  food,  etc.  Besides  these  free 
wards,  paying  patients  find  accommodations  where  they 
are  surrounded  with  every  home  comfort.  There  are  also 
separate  wards  where  missionary  priests  and  Sisters  may 
find  the  care  and  attention  they  so  sorely  need. 

The  medical  charge  is  in  the  hands  of  a  surgeon  of 
high  European  qualifications,  assisted  by  Sisters  who  hold 
certificates  of  medical  skill  and  by  a  secular  woman 
physician. 

The  out-patient  department  is  well  patronized  by  the 
natives.  The  numerous  closed  carts  and  wagonettes  that 
can  daily  be  seen  in  front  of  the  Sisters’  consulting  rooms 
testify  to  their  popularity,  for  these  carts  are  filled  with 
closely  veiled  Mohammedan  or  other  pagan  women  with 
their  children  seeking  relief  from  their  illness.  In  one 


248 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


year  48,027  in  and  outdoor  patients  were  treated  in  St. 
Martha’s  Hospital.3 

Want  of  Doctors. — The  Catholic  hospitals  in  India  are 
laboring  under  a  serious  handicap,  namely,  the  scarcity  of 
efficient  doctors  who  are  practical  Catholics.  Dr.  Mar¬ 
garet  Lamont  tells  us  that  the  doctors  are  usually  Protes¬ 
tant  and  often  Free  Masons.  Very  seldom,  indeed,  are 
the  doctors  practical  Catholics.  Catholic  boys  and  girls 
are  studying  at  Indian  medical  schools  under  entirely 
Protestant  and  sometimes  wholly  materialistic  influences. 
Pagans,  with  only  a  veneer  of  Christian  morals,  are  being 
turned  out  daily  as  practitioners  and  are  at  times  in  charge 
of  Catholic  girls’  schools  and  convents.  Can  we  wonder, 
then,  that  bishops,  priests  and  Sisters  are  ever  more  urg¬ 
ently  begging  for  the  services  of  Catholic  doctors,  both 
men  and  women  ? 

Medical  Missions. — Closely  allied  to  the  hospital  but 
with  a  wider  reaching  influence,  is  the  institution 
known  as  the  medical  mission.  This  branch  of  missionary 
activity  has  been  used  by  Protestants  for  some  time,  and 
lately  Catholic  missionaries  are  becoming  more  and  more 
convinced  of  its  influence.  In  fact,  the  Archbishop  of 
Simla  maintains  that  a  medical  mission  is  the  only  means 
at  present  to  reach  the  heart  of  India.  Owing  to  the  in¬ 
fluence  of  Islam  the  women  of  India,  especially  those  of 
the  higher  castes,  are  forced  to  live  in  a  secluded  portion 
of  the  house  known  as  the  zenana.  This  apartment  is  sep¬ 
arated  from  the  rest  of  the  house  by  a  curtain  called 
purdah ,  hence  the  women  are  called  purdah-ladies.  It  is 
strictly  forbidden  to  any  man,  not  an  immediate  member 
of  the  family,  to  visit  these  women,  consequently  priests 
and  male  doctors  are  not  admitted.  Pain  and  fear  of 
death,  however,  do  not  respect  the  purdah ,  and  when  these 
enter,  the  stricken  women  call  for  just  one  person — the 
woman  doctor.  Occasionally  a  mission  Sister  is  called, 
but  she  can  do  little  beyond  instructing  the  patient  and 

3  Catholic  Missions,  N.  Y.,  1922,  Vol.  XVI,  pp.  123-126. 


.CHARITABLE  AND  SOCIAL  WORK 


249 


baptizing  her  in  case  death  is  near.  There  are,  however, 
many  cases  which  a  Sister  is  forbidden  by  her  rule  to 
treat.  So  it  becomes  imperative  that  the  Catholic  woman 
doctor  should  enter  the  field  and  help  to  win  souls  to 
Christ. 

The  A.  R.  M.  Association. — To  relieve  this  dire  neces¬ 
sity,  i.e.,  to  furnish  doctors  for  the  missions,  Dr.  Margaret 
Lamont,  an  efficient  physician  and  surgeon  who  has  seen 
much  service  in  India  and  the  Orient,  is  organizing  a 
pious  association  of  laymen  known  as  the  Association  of 
Alma  Redemptoris  Mater.  The  Sacred  Congregation  of 
Propaganda  approved  this  society  in  a  protocol,  Septem¬ 
ber  30,  1920.  The  association  is  composed  of  doctors 
and  is  managed  and  supported  by  doctors.  With  the 
financial  support  of  the  laity  the  association  aims  to  send 
efficient  doctors  (both  men  and  women)  to  the  missions,  to 
support  those  already  there  and  to  educate  candidates 
both  at  home  and  in  missionary  countries.  This  associa¬ 
tion  is  not  limited  to  one  locality  or  nationality,  nor  is 
it  restricted  to  any  particular  mission,  but  being  “truly 
Catholic”  (to  use  the  words  of  the  late  Holy  Father)  it 
is  to  spread  over  the  whole  missionary  world.  Branches 
have  been  established  in  England  and  Holland  and  we 
hope  soon  to  witness  the  establishment  of  this  association 
or  one  similar  to  it  in  our  own  beloved  America. 

Asylums  for  Incurables. — Besides  hospitals  where  the 
sick  are  nursed  back  to  health,  Christian  charity  has 
prompted  the  erection  of  institutions  where  those  may 
find  refuge  who  are  afflicted  with  diseases  for  which 
science  has  hitherto  found  no  satisfactory  or  lasting  cure. 
Chief  among  them  are  the  leper  asylums,  where  lepers, 
those  poor  outcasts  of  humanity,  are  cared  for,  their  wants 
attended  to,  and  where  everything  is  done  to  relieve  them 
in  their  sufferings.  Taught  hy  the  heroic  example  of  the 
Catholic  Sisters,  some  of  whom  die  of  this  terrible  scourge 
as  a  result  of  their  self-sacrifice,  the  lepers  learn  to  suffer 
with  patience  and  resignation  and  to  prepare  for  a  happy 


250 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


death.  Besides  these  leper  asylums  the  mission  Sisters 
conduct  homes  for  the  deaf-mutes,  feeble-minded  and 
cripples. 

Dispensaries. — Owing  to  the  helplessness  of  the  natives 
to  care  for  themselves  when  afflicted  with  some  indispo¬ 
sition,  it  became  necessary  to  establish  places  where 
minor  ills  could  be  treated.  The  Government  has  erected 
many  such  stations,  but  not  enough  to  meet  the  needs. 
There  are  in  India  some  175  Catholic  dispensaries  which 
are  generally  attached  to  hospitals,  orphanages  and  mis¬ 
sion  stations.  Conducted  by  Sisters,  who  as  registered 
nurses  are  skilled  in  the  use  of  drugs,  these  dispensaries 
have  proven  a  veritable  godsend  to  the  poor  of  the  sur¬ 
rounding  country.  A  curious  fact  worth  mentioning  is 
that  in  places  where  both  a  Catholic  and  a  Government 
dispensary  are  located,  the  people  visit  the  Sisters’  dis¬ 
pensary  first  and  return  to  it  even  if  the  necessity  for 
operative  treatment  has  made  them  for  a  time  patients  of 
the  dispensary  attended  by  the  Government  surgeon.4 
The  number  of  patients  treated  daily  at  each  of  these  dis¬ 
pensaries  ranges  between  fifty  and  a  hundred.  Having 
opened  the  day’s  work  with  prayer  in  the  native  language 
the  religious  proceeds  at  once  to  work ;  the  catechist,  mean¬ 
while,  is  at  hand  instructing  the  people  in  some  practices 
of  the  Faith,  explaining  the  meaning  of  the  religious  pic¬ 
tures  on  the  walls  and  pointing  out  the  consolations  offered 
by  the  Catholic  Beligion. 

Visiting  the  Side  in  Their  Own  Homes. — The  work  in 
the  dispensary  having  been  done,  the  Sister  taking  a  native 
Sister  as  companion  and  interpreter  and  equipped  with  a 
medicine  kit  proceeds  to  seek  the  sick  in  their  own  homes. 
Braving  the  cruel  glare  of  a  tropical  sun  these  heroic 
Sisters  have  been  known  to  tramp  for  hours  over  the  hot, 
dusty  plains  in  quest  of  the  sick  and  dying.  They  make 
no  distinction  but  enter  the  miserable  hovel  of  the  native 

*  Dr.  Margaret  Lamont,  Indian  Catholic  Medical  Missions,  Trichi- 
nopoly,  1919,  p.  10. 


CHARITABLE  AND  SOCIAL  WORK 


251 


with  as  much  joy  as  the  finest  residence  of  the  European. 
In  times,  especially  when  the  cholera  or  the  plague  is 
raging,  when  the  native  medical  practitioners  suddenly 
leave  the  district  to  visit  their  mothers-in-law,  as  they  say, 
the  ministrations  of  these  visiting  Sisters  are  much  sought 
after.  Returning  in  the  evening  footsore  and  weary  they 
recount  with  joy  the  number  of  little  ones  sent  to  heaven. 
Entries  in  simple  diaries  of  convent  life  speak  for  them¬ 
selves  :  “  Twenty-eight  orphans  rescued,  baptisms  fin 
articulo  mortis’  forty-three.”  This  is  recounted  as  the 
day’s  work  for  two  Sisters.5 

Other  Charitable  Institutions . — The  missionaries,  how¬ 
ever,  do  not  confine  themselves  to  the  care  of  the  sick  and 
the  dying.  There  is  another  class  that  demands  and  re¬ 
ceives  their  attention,  namely,  the  widows  and  orphans. 
Famine,  sickness  and  death  are  continually  stalking  over 
the  country  leaving  misery  and  want  behind  them,  render¬ 
ing  widows  and  orphans  destitute  and  placing  them  at  the 
mercy  of  their  none-too-charitable  neighbors.  To  aid  these 
poor  outcasts,  orphanages  and  refuges  have  been  erected 
where  they  receive  not  only  food  and  clothing  for  the  body, 
but  where  their  starved  souls  are  fed  with  divine  truths 
and  clothed  with  the  garment  of  sanctifying  grace. 

Orphanages. — The  orphanage,  perhaps,  more  than  any 
other  institution,  has  proved  itself  a  veritable  nursery  for 
Christianity.  For  it  is  here  that  the  children  living  in 
a  thoroughly  Catholic  atmosphere  and  protected  from  the 
blighting  influences  of  paganism  are  brought  up  to  be 
stanch  Catholic  men  and  women.  It  is  from  the  ranks 
of  these  people  that  native  priests,  nuns  and  catechists  are 
recruited.  Many  of  these  orphans,  however,  suffer  so  much 
before  coming  to  the  orphanage  that  they  die  soon  after 
their  arrival.  Many  of  them  after  wandering  about  for 
some  time  in  a  half-starved  condition  are  picked  up  by  the 
missionary  and  brought  to  the  institution ;  some  are  res- 

6  The  Messenger  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  N.  Y.,  1900,  Vol.  XXXV, 
p.  1134. 


252 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


cued  from  the  ditches  where  their  inhuman  parents  have 
cast  them;  others  finally  are  brought  to  the  mission  by 
a  distracted  father  or  mother  who  finds  it  impossible  to 
support  the  children  and  who  threatens  to  cast  them  aside 
unless  they  be  accepted  at  the  orphanage. 

Homes  for  Boys . — These  homes,  as  the  name  implies, 
are  exclusively  for  orphan  boys  and  are  in  charge  of  re¬ 
ligious  congregations  of  men.  No  boy  younger  than  seven 
years  is  accepted  into  these  homes,  those  younger  are  sent 
to  the  Sisters  until  the  required  age  has  been  reached. 
The  Brothers  give  the  boys  a  thorough  manual  training, 
teaching  them  such  useful  occupations  as  farming,  car¬ 
pentry,  horse-shoeing,  printing,  bookbinding,  etc.  Many 
boys  become  catechists  and  quite  a  number  join  the  ranks 
of  the  native  clergy. 

Homes  for  Girls. — The  homes  for  girls  are  under  the 
supervision  of  the  missionary  Sisters.  The  regulations 
are  somewhat  different  from  those  in  the  boys’  homes. 
Children  are  received  at  any  age,  the  infants  being  placed 
in  charge  of  the  native  women  who  make  their  home  at 
the  institution.  As  the  children  grow  up  they  are  taught 
their  prayers  and  catechism  by  the  older  girls.  At  the 
age  of  seven  or  thereabout  the  boys  are  transferred  to  the 
boys’  home.  Emerging  from  childhood  the  girls  are  grad¬ 
ually  introduced  to  domestic  science.  They  are  taught 
cooking,  sewing,  spinning  and  weaving,  the  rudiments  of 
hygiene,  in  short,  everything  that  is  useful  for  the  future 
housewife  and  mother.  By  caring  for  the  little  ones,  teach¬ 
ing  them  their  catechism  and  the  elementary  knowledge 
under  the  supervision  of  the  mission  Sisters  the  older 
girls  prove  themselves  very  useful  to  the  establishment. 
Many  of  them  leave  the  institution  to  become  capable 
housewives  and  true  Christian  mothers;  the  others  pre¬ 
ferring  the  quiet  life  of  the  religious  remain  at  the  in¬ 
stitution  thus  forming  a  community  -of  native  Sisters 
under  the  supervision  of  the  mission  Sisters. 

Refuges  for  Widows. — Owing  to  the  timeworn  customs 


Sisters  Rendering  First  Aid 


CHARITABLE  AND  SOCIAL  WORK 


253 


of  India  which  sanction  the  marriage  of  mere  children 
and  which  forbid  a  widow  to  remarry,  there  are  many 
young  women  who  are  widows  at  an  early  age  and  who 
are  forced  to  lead  a  life  of  hardship  and  danger.  In  1911 
there  were  in  India  335,000  widows  between  the  ages  of 
five  and  fifteen.  To  grant  these  unfortunate  creatures  a 
place  of  refuge,  asylums  have  been  opened  at  various 
places.  These  institutions  are  mostly  connected  with 
orphanages  where,  besides  leading  a  life  of  sacrifice,  the 
widows  also  prove  of  inestimable  value  to  the  Sisters  by 
caring  for  the  infants  that  are  brought  in.  Though  many 
of  those  who  enter  these  asylums  leave  again  preferring 
the  free  life  of  the  wild  to  the  quiet  orderly  life  of  the 
institution,  yet  there  are  many  who  remain  with  the  Sis¬ 
ters  and  even  consecrate  themselves  to  God’s  service. 

Sisters  of  St.  Anne. — Some  of  these  widows  have  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  establishing  a  religious  congregation  which  is 
unique  in  its  kind.  This  congregation,  known  as  the  Con¬ 
gregation  of  St.  Anne,  was  founded  in  1878  at  Trichin- 
opoly  and  is  composed  of  widows  who  have  consecrated 
themselves  to  God  in  the  cause  of  charity.  As  early  as 
1885  it  had  a  membership  of  thirty-one  Sisters.  It  com¬ 
prises  three  classes:  (1)  the  Sisters  who  having  learned 
reading,  writing  and  sewing,  are  able  to  impart  this  knowl¬ 
edge  to  their  pupils;  (2)  such  widows  as  are  too  old  to 
enter  (beyond  twenty-five  to  thirty  years),  but  who  wish  to 
lead  a  secluded  life,  and  who  work  about  the  house;  (3) 
such  as  have  wandered  forbidden  paths  and  wish  to  lead 
a  life  of  penance  far  from  the  occasion  of  sin.  These 
Sisters  have  charge  of  orphanages  for  girls  at  Trichinopoly 
and  Adeikalaburam  and  are  doing  a  great  work  in  their 
humble  way  in  conducting  houses  of  refuge,  hospitals 
and  institutions  for  catechumens. 

Social  Work. — Having  seen  what  the  missionaries  in 
India  are  doing  to  relieve  the  sick  and  the  infirm,  the 
widow  and  the  orphan,  we  now  come  to  a  new  phase  of 
their  activity,  namely,  their  efforts  to  better  the  social 


254 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


condition  of  tlie  people.  Since  most  of  the  converts  be¬ 
long  to  the  lower  and  poorer  castes  they  naturally  turn 
to  the  Fathers  for  help.  The  latter  responded  willingly, 
often  loaning  their  last  coin  to  some  unfortunate  farmer. 
The  Hindu  peasant,  however,  thinking  that  the  missionary 
had  an  inexhaustible  mine  of  wealth,  seldom  returned  the 
money ;  but  was  always  certain  to  come  for  more  when  his 
supply  was  gone.  It  soon  became  apparent  to  the  Fathers 
that  this  sort  of  thing  could  not  go  on  as  the  resources  of 
the  missions  were  making  no  progress  in  a  material  way. 
Happily  the  attention  of  the  Government  was  drawn  to 
the  general  misery  of  the  poor  throughout  the  Indian 
Empire.  In  1904,  finally,  when  the  Cooperative  Credit 
Society  Act  was  passed,  steps  were  taken  to  relieve  this 
condition. 

Cooperative  Societies. — The  cooperative  movement  in 
India  progressed  rapidly.  Eleven  years  after  the  Coopera¬ 
tive  Credit  Society  Act  was  passed  there  were  17,327 
cooperative  societies  with  a  capital  of  Rs.  89,661,722 
($29,086,263)  and  824,469  members.  Since  India  is  pri¬ 
marily  an  agricultural  country  it  is  not  surprising  that 
of  the  17,327  societies  15,861,  or  about  92  per  cent,  are 
agricultural  credit  associations.  Even  this  number  is  in¬ 
adequate  since  there  are  in  India  over  200,000,000  agri¬ 
culturists  to  be  financed.  The  Catholic  missionaries  were 
not  slow  to  see  the  advantage  of  such  societies.  They 
accordingly  set  about  to  introduce  them  among  the  Chris¬ 
tians  and  were  rewarded  by  seeing  the  poor  laborer  raised 
to  honest  independence  and  becoming  prosperous.  These 
credit  societies  serve  the  purpose  of  banks  by  loaning 
money  to  their  members  at  a  low  rate  of  interest.  The 
members  take  the  place  of  the  stockholders,  drawing  divi¬ 
dends  on  their  shares,  and  consequently  are  helped  in  more 
than  one  way. 

Success  of  These  Societies. — By  the  aid  of  these  socie¬ 
ties  “laborers  have  become  owners;  hopeless  debts  have 
been  banished  and  the  money  lender  driven  out;  agricul- 


CHARITABLE  AND  SOCIAL  WORK 


255 


ture  and  industry  have  been  developed  and  the  villagers 
in  the  poorest  tracts  have  become  prosperous;  the  middle¬ 
man  has  been  eliminated,  the  raiyat  (peasant)  is  getting 
full  value  for  his  produce  and  paying  his  rent  with  ease; 
punctuality,  thrift  and  mutual  confidence  are  being  taught ; 
litigation  has  decreased  and  morality  has  improved ;  activ¬ 
ity  has  taken  the  place  of  stagnation  and  routine.”  6  It 
is,  therefore,  only  a  question  of  time  till  an  adequate  num¬ 
ber  of  cooperative  societies  has  been  established — a  number 
that  will  be  sufficient  to  cover  the  needs  of  the  200,000,000 
agriculturists — that  India  will  become  prosperous  in  a 
material  way  and  the  Church  in  India,  which  at  present 
is  in  need  of  much  support  from  the  outside,  will  become 
self-supporting. 

Other  Societies. — Besides  these  cooperative  societies 
the  Catholics  have  independent  charitable  organizations 
which  give  the  wealthy  European  or  Eurasian  ample 
opportunity  to  show  his  charity.  The  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
Society  is  firmly  established  in  the  larger  Catholic  centers 
and  is  occupied  in  distributing  alms  in  kind  and  coin  to 
the  poor.  There  are  also  many  local  societies  and  parish 
clubs  whose  aim  it  is  to  give  wholesome  recreation  to  its 
members.  The  need  of  a  national  organization  similar 
to  that  of  the  Knights  of  Columbus  is  being  more  keenly 
felt,  especially  since  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  has  now  127  centers 
in  India. 

8  Monthly  Labor  Review,  U.  S.  Department  of  Labor,  1920,  Vol.  X, 
p.  136. 


CHAPTER  V 


DIFFICULTIES  AND  OBSTACLES 

Ik  the  preceding  chapters  we  have  tried  to  depict  what 
has  been  done  for  the  social  and  religious  uplift  of  the 
natives  of  India.  In  this  chapter  we  shall  devote  our 
attention  to  some  of  the  chief  obstacles  the  missionary 
meets  in  his  daily  round  of  duties.  A  consideration  of 
the  vast  amount  of  time  and  energy  spent  by  heroic  mis¬ 
sionaries  in  evangelizing  the  Indian  naturally  tempts  one 
to  ask  whether  the  results  bear  any  proportion  to  the 
noble  efforts  and  the  pecuniary  sacrifices  made  in  cham¬ 
pioning  the  Indian  cause.  The  progress  of  conversions 
in  most  localities  has  been  and  is  made  by  slow  degrees. 
The  cause  of  this  sluggish  growth  of  Christianity  can 
be  found  in  the  difficult  circumstances  which  confront 
every  social  and  religious  worker  who  sets  foot  on  Indian 
soil. 

Physical  Difficulties .  Poverty. — The  physical  difficul¬ 
ties  which  the  natives  and  the  missionary  encounter  in 
India  are  many  and  great.  The  native  Indian  is,  as  a 
rule,  very  poor;  he  has  but  the  necessities  of  life.  Agri¬ 
culture  is  the  chief  industry.  The  native  has  either  his 
own  little  plot  of  ground  which  yields  him  his  grain, 
which  is  the  staple  food,  or  he  works  on  another  man’s 
farm.  Wages  are  very  low,  so  low,  indeed,  that  there 
can  scarcely  be  question  of  supporting  the  missionary. 

Storms  and  Cyclones. — Storms  and  cyclones  are  of  fre¬ 
quent  occurrence.  They  come  up  unexpectedly,  sweep 
over  a  section  of  the  land  and  leave  nothing  but  ruin  in 
their  wake.  Thousands  and  thousands  of  acres  of  land 
are  swamped,  the  crops  ruined,  whole  villages  destroyed 

256 


DIFFICULTIES  AND  OBSTACLES 


257 


and  scores  of  inhabitants  drowned  in  the  floods.  When  the 
waters  abate,  the  missionary,  .if  he  still  survive,  gathers 
the  remaining  few  charges  of  his  flock  and  makes  a  new 
start. 

After  the  floods  the  drowned  victims  often  lie  exposed 
for  weeks  and  weeks  before  they  can  be  gathered  together 
and  buried.  Sanitation  being  almost  unknown,  it  is  only 
the  natural  course  of  ’things  that  sickness  and  disease 
spread  over  the  inundated  sections  of  the  land.  Malaria 
is  one  of  the  most  common  plagues  and  annually  claims 
many  victims.  During  1918  over  seven  million  deaths 
from  influenza  were  reported.  The  registered  deaths  from 
plague  during  the  year  1919  were  74,274. 

Famine. — At  other  times  the  country  is  visited  by  most 
distressing  drought.  It  is  then  that  crops  burn  up  and 
famine  stares  the  people  in  the  face.  The  wretched  people 
drag  themselves  about  from  place  to  place  in  search  of 
food,  but  there  is  none  to  be  had.  In  times  of  famine  the 
villages,  plains  and  fields  are  literally  strewn  with  the 
dead  and  dying.  Volumes  could  be  written  on  the  famines 
of  India,  but  the  short  notices  written  occasionally  by 
missionaries  describe  well  enough  what  a  great  calamity 
a  famine  is.  These  are  but  a  few  of  the  greater  physical 
obstacles  with  which  the  missionary  is  beset.  We  shall 
now  consider  the  moral  and  religious  difficulties. 

Ignorance  and  Indifference. — If  the  wild  outbreaks  of 
the  elements  form  a  great  source  of  hardships  for  the 
missionaries,  much  more  does  the  character  of  the  people 
prepare  for  them  many  a  cutting  pain  and  pang  in  the 
weary  field  of  labor.  The  missionaries  testify  that  the 
heathen  of  India  are,  in  large  numbers,  ignorant  as  to 
the  knowledge  of  the  soul  and  spiritual  matters.  This  is 
due  mainly  to  their  poverty.  The  people  are  hard-worked 
from  sunrise  to  sundown  in  gaining  their  daily  bread. 
Consequently,  they  have  little  time  to  devote  to  the  study 
of  religion.  At  times  priests  meet  with  famine-stricken 
villages  where  great  suffering  and  misery  have  reduced 


258 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


men  to  mere  skeletons.  Despite  the  fact  that  death  is 
staring  .them  in  the  face  and  that  the  missionaries  make 
heroic  sacrifices  in  their  behalf,  the  heathen  will  seldom, 
if  ever,  listen  to  the  words  of  consolation,  but  contemptu¬ 
ously  turn  aside  on  the  plea  that  they  must  work,  else 
they  will  die. 

Selfishness. — It  cannot  be  denied  that  drinking,  gam¬ 
bling  and  immorality  are  vices  that  have  been  rife  in 
India  since  Aryan  times.  The  latter,  especially,  proves 
a  formidable  difficulty  even  to-day.  These  vices  naturally 
beget  selfishness  which  is  the  one  ruling  motive  of  the 
natives.  When  there  is  question  of  supporting  any  cause 
or  founding  an  educational  or  philanthropic  institution 
the  Indian  centers  every  fiber  of  his  heart  on  his  own 
personal  gain.  If  the  project  bids  fair  to  increase  the 
prestige  of  the  family,  he  supports  it  with  might  and 
main.  Ever  eager  to  cut  a  figure  in  the  world,  to  be  a 
center  of  honor  and  glory,  his  own  selfish  emolument  must 
be  sensed  in  every  enterprise,  else  he  spurns  any  appeal 
for  aid  or  cooperation.  In  short,  all  feelings  of  Christ- 
like  charity  are  sadly  wanting  in  the  Indian,  and  he  be¬ 
comes  provoked  when  reminded  of  his  remissness. 

Lack  of  Charity. — When  selfishness  reigns  supreme, 
charity  is  naturally  unknown.  It  is  w7ell  known  to  all 
workers  among  the  Indians  that  the  heathen  in  general 
are  hard-hearted  and  unsympathetic.  We  could  quote  a 
score  of  examples  that  would  bear  out  this  point.  A  single 
instance,  however,  recorded  in  Die  katholischen  Missionen 
(1897-1898,  No.  5.)  by  a  missionary  will  suffice.  This 
Father  tells  how  a  widow  with  a  small  child  was  sadly 
reduced  to  extreme  poverty.  While  begging  for  a  little 
grain  she  knocked  at  the  door  of  the  rich,  but  was  denied 
even  a  handful.  For  three  days  she  wandered  about  in 
search  of  a  morsel  to  strengthen  her  languishing  limbs,  but 
everywhere  she  met  with  bitter  disappointment.  Muster¬ 
ing  up  courage  she  made  a  last  supreme  effort  to  save 
her  life  by  gathering  a  bundle  of  dry  twigs.  In  her  piti- 


DIFFICULTIES  AND  OBSTACLES 


259 


able  condition  she  dragged  herself  and  the  twigs  about 
seven  or  eight  miles  to  the  village  in  the  hope  of  gaining 
at  least  a  pittance  in  exchange  for  the  wood.  Wayworn 
and  drooping  with  fatigue  she  arrived  at  the  village  where 
a  heartless  crowd  robbed  her  of  her  last  hope,  the  bundle 
of  twigs.  About  to  collapse  she  dragged  herself  from  door 
to  door  pleading  with  tears  for  a  mouthful  of  food.  Every¬ 
where  she  was  inhumanly  snubbed  and  cast  aside. 

On  the  fourth  day  of  her  fast  the  poor  creature  sank 
to  the  ground  at  her  door  in  exhaustion.  Not  a  word 
passed  her  lips,  only  a  pitiful  motion  of  the  hand  betrayed 
her  plea  for  food.  Finally  a  Christian  discovered  her 
and  fetched  some  food.  But  all  too  late,  having  swallowed 
a  mouthful  she  closed  her  eyes  in  death.  The  offenders 
were  severely  reprimanded  concerning  their  hard-hearted¬ 
ness,  but  words  made  no  impression.  Their  only  rejoinder 
was:  “Should  we  starve  ourselves,  our  wives  and  chil¬ 
dren,  to  save  an  old  hag?”  The  Christians  appealed  to 
the  authorities  who  were,  of  course,  Brahmans.  Upon 
these  the  English  Government  had  laid  the  stern  dutv 
to  report  those  they  found  in  sore  need.  The  officials 
indeed  summoned  the  offenders  and  even  pretended  to  in¬ 
vestigate  matters.  The  culprits,  however,  had  witnesses 
at  hand  to  swear  that  the  miserable  woman  was  consumed 
by  fever.  The  case  was  thus  ended  without  further  ado. 
Similar  cases  of  indescribable  misery  of  the  suffering  poor 
are  many,  and  heartlessness  of  the  rich  heathen  is  like¬ 
wise  a  familiar  story  to  be  heard  from  many  a  lip. 

Neglect  of  the  Sick. — It  almost  moves  one  to  tears  to 
read  the  tales  of  cruel  neglect  of  the  sick  and  suffering. 
The  natives,  in  the  main,  seem  to  lack  all  the  feelings  of 
human  kindness  toward  their  afflicted  brethren.  Nay, 
they  even  refuse  to  hear  of  the  pain  and  the  sickness  of  a 
fellow  man.  Many  are  the  sad  stories  related  by  the  mis¬ 
sionaries  how  sons  and  daughters  ruthlessly  cast  their 
old  parents  into  the  filthy  dark  corner  of  a  musty  room 
where  the  aged  lie  until  their  entire  body  becomes  one 


260 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


festering  wound,  swarming  with  hideous  worms.  The  un¬ 
natural  children  give  not  the  slightest  heed  to  the  broken¬ 
hearted  pleadings  of  their  poor  parents.  In  this  horrify¬ 
ing  condition  the  old  people  expire.  More  shocking  still 
is  the  manifest  indifference  with  which  even  the  closest 
relatives  view  such  an  outrageous  course  of  action.  On 
all  sides  the  sick  and  dying  are  abandoned  regardless  of 
their  moaning/ sighing  and  pleading  for,  perhaps,  merely 
a  glass  'of  water,  all  of  which  is  sufficient  to  touch  the 
heart  of  any  ordinary  mortal.  Not  so  the  heart  of  the 
heathen.  They  mock  at  the  miserable  sick,  and  turning 
their  back  on  them  wish  the  wretched  poor  a  speedy  death, 
not  caring  a  jot  in  what  misery,  pain  and  horror  they  may 
make  their  exit  from  a  world  that  to  them  was  literally  a 
vale  of  tears. 

Inhuman  Heartlessness. — The  inhuman  cruelty  ex¬ 
hibited  by  the  heathen  toward  their  sick  fellow  men  is  in¬ 
deed  an  outrage  hut  when  they  strangle  in  their  breasts  the 
love  for  their  dearest  of  friends,  their  own  mother,  heart¬ 
lessness  has  run  to  the  very  extreme  of  savagery.  A  case 
in  point  we  have  in  the  story  of  a  missionary  who  relates 
how  two  sons  brought  their  old  mother  to  the  asylum 
bidding  the  priest  and  the  Sisters  to  treat  her  charitably 
(sic!).  Helplessly  faint  and  with  her  head  one  mass  of 
ulcers,  death,  within  a  brief  space,  seemed  inevitable.  The 
good  missionaries,  however,  nursed  her  faithfully  and  the 
woman  recovered.  Soon  she  left  the  orphanage  in  search 
of  her  two  married  daughters  living  in  the  village.  Not 
long  after  she  was  brought  back  to  the  orphanage  with 
a  fractured  leg  and  bearing  signs  of  brutal  misuse.  Re¬ 
covery  appeared  hopeless.  It  was  ascertained  that  her 
own  sons  and  daughters  had  perpetrated  this  merciless 
crime.  Having  no  food  the  old  woman  had  begged  from 
a  Christian  a  little  rice  which  she  ate  to  her  great  relief. 
To  receive  anything  from  a  Christian  is  looked  upon 
as  a  crime  by  the  higher  castes  in  India  and  because  their 
old  mother  had  taken  the  rice  prepared  for  her  by  a  Chris- 


DIFFICULTIES  AND  OBSTACLES  261 

tian  the  unnatural  children  subjected  her  to  this  violence 
and  abuse. 

Perverse  Mind . — Christianity  is  diametrically  opposed 
to  such  diabolical  conduct  and  does  not  hesitate  to  censure 
the  offenders.  Naturally  the  guilty  feel  the  sting  of 
censure  and  fling  all  sorts  of  jibes  at  the  Church.  The 
Hindus  in  particular  mock  at  Christianity  with  all  the 
contempt  of  a  Pharisee  and  call  the  missionaries  fanatics 
and  visionaries.  If  the  missionary  ‘ventures  to  speak 
about  charity,  truth,  duty  and  the  like,  he  is  courting 
trouble.  The  Indians  would  pretend  to  listen  with  atten¬ 
tion  and  docility,  but  the  priest’s  efforts  seldom  bring  re¬ 
sults,  for  the  average  Hindu  is  heavily  handicapped  by 
ignorance  of  spiritual  things,  by  a  disregard  for  the  future 
life  and  his  dull  conscience.  He  is  totally  destitute  of  the 
moral  courage  to  search  for  and  pursue  the  truth.  He  is 
unconcerned  about  his  spiritual  welfare.  Those  who  can 
boast  of  some  education  declare  that  the  Christian  doc¬ 
trines  are  fables,  poetic  imaginings  and  contradictions 
still  more  confused  by  European  Orientalists.1  This 
apathy  of  the  Hindus  is  the  natural  result  of  their  skep¬ 
ticism.  The  Hindu,  as  a  rule,  is  an  out  and  out  skeptic. 
Some  schools  of  Hindu  philosophy  even  deny  the  meta¬ 
physical  principle  of  contradiction,  so  that  good  and  evil, 
heaven  and  hell  are  identical,  being  and  nothingness,  one 
and  the  same  thing.  The  common  people  to  a  great  ex¬ 
tent  philosophize  in  the  same  strain;  with  them  there  is 
neither  truth  nor  error;  everything  is  alike. 

Missionaries'  Example. — To  create  an  impression  on 
the  minds  of  such  people  is  a  difficult  task.  The  natives 
see  and  observe  the  many  hardships  the  missionaries  bear 
in  their  behalf.  Nay,  they  even  admire  the  beautiful  vir¬ 
tues  mirrored  in  the  unselfish  lives  of  these  heroes  of  the 
Gospel.  Still  all  this  heroism  apparently  vanishes  as 
smoke,  leaving  but  a  faint,  if  any,  impression  on  their 

1  J.  C.  Houpert,  S.  J.,  The  Madura  Mission  Manual,  Trichinopoly, 
1916,  p.  106. 


262 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


hearts.  How  any  one  can  freely  make  such  sacrifices,  suf¬ 
fer  such  distress,  to  convert  them  to  a  religion  which  they 
have  no  wish  to  embrace,  they  cannot  comprehend.  It 
is  true,  some  make  manly  efforts  to  become  good  Chris¬ 
tians  and  are  eager  for  baptism,  and  these  are  the  genuine 
converts.  At  times,  however,  conversions  are  but  shams. 
In  these  cases  it  seems  that  the  natives  make  the  pre¬ 
tense  of  conversion  merely  to  secure  the  confidence  and 
protection  of  the  missionaries  and  thereby  enhance  their 
earthly  riches  and  widen  their  influence — two  things  which 
are  their  sole  end  and  aim  in  this  life.  Missionaries  com¬ 
plain,  and  not  without  reason,  that  conversions  in  India 
with  few  exceptions  come  slow,  are  fraught  with  difficul¬ 
ties,  and  often  prove  of  transient  duration.  Faith,  love 
of  neighbor,  humility  and  unwearying  patience  are  the 
missionary’s  only  weapons  to  tide  him  over  the  disappoint¬ 
ments  and  hardships  which  are  the  daily  portion  in  the 
Indian  missionary’s  life. 

Superstition . — Superstition  has  always  played  the  vil¬ 
lain’s  role  on  the  stage  of  the  heathen  world.  The  ma¬ 
gicians  sow  the  seeds  of  this  foul  practice  far  and  wide. 
These  sorcerers  take  a  prominent  place,  and  are  active  in 
almost  all  the  ordinary  social  events  of  the  day.  The 
credulous  masses  are  easily  deceived  by  their  craftiness 
and  fraud.  For  example,  at  religious  festivities  the  Brah¬ 
mans  cast  a  part  of  the  sacrifices  into  the  fire  whereupon 
the  Ojha,  their  magician,  with  closed  eyes,  his  hands  and 
feet  trembling,  whirls  around  in  a  circle,  stammering 
some  unintelligible  words  the  while,  until  he  sinks  to  the 
ground  in  a  dreamy  and  apparently  unconscious  state.  In 
this  pass  the  creature  is  believed  to  be  inspired  by  the 
god  Kali  Dewi,  and  intrusted  with  grave  revelations. 
The  heathen  priest  asks  the  Ojha  what  sacrifice  Kali  Dewi 
desires.  Given  the  answer,  a  goat  is  secured  which,  after 
the  Brahmans  lop  off  its  ears  and  lay  on  its  head  all  dis¬ 
eases  afflicting  the  populace,  is  turned  loose  to  wander  over 
the  outskirts  of  the  village.  The  people  are  thus  duped 


DIFFICULTIES  AND  OBSTACLES 


263 


and  believe  that  the  goat  has  carried  away  all  their  bodily 
ailments  and  afflictions.  The  pestilential  disorders  are 
now  given  no  further  heed,  and  far  from  being  allayed 
rapidly  increase  and  work  havoc  in  the  community.  In 
such  cases  the  sorcerers  immediately  fix  the  blame  on 
some  person  who,  they  pretend,  is  offending  the  revered 
Kali  Dewi  by  his  remiss  conduct,  though  the  person  may 
be  wholly  irreproachable  and  innocent  and  as  peaceable 
as  any  in  the  vicinity.  The  charge  reaches  the  ears  of 
the  mob.  In  the  heat  of  fanaticism  the  people  gather  en 
masse  against  the  accused,  and  the  scene  frequently  closes 
with  the  tragic  death  of  the  innocent  victim.  In  some 
instances  the  Ojha,  rankling  with  hatred,  is  known  to 
have  craftily  represented  harmless  people  as  wizards  and 
witches  to  wreak  vengeance  on  the  innocent  victims.  A 
person  thus  singled  out  is  helpless  and  doomed  to  die  or 
bear  any  punishment  dictated  by  an  Ojha  whose  words 
are  deemed  the  very  utterances  of  the  gods. 

Superstition  of  this  sort  has  an  immense  vogue.  The 
natives  hanker  after  these  false  forms  of  religion  and 
make  almost  any  worthless  object  their  god.  The  very  cow 
is  adored  as  a  god ;  snakes,  monkeys  and  rats  have  temples 
built  in  their  honor;  even  cold  rough  rocks  receive  homage 
from  this  poor  people.  For  centuries  the  vast  majority 
of  Hindus  have  thus  been  offering  their  prayers  to  these 
fictitious  gods  without  receiving  even  a  semblance  of 
succor  in  the  vicissitudes  of  life.  They  know  not  the 
strong  living  God  of  Christianity,  and  the  increase  of 
this  saving  religion  is  greatly  retarded  by  the  inborn 
prejudice  and  hatred  of  Hinduism.  All  Brahmans  profess 
Hinduism,  and  other  castes  likewise  embrace  it  with  all 
the  ardor  of  their  souls.  A  more  effective  check  to  the 
progress  of  Christianity  can  scarcely  be  found  than  this 
whole-hearted  espousal  of  Hindu  doctrines.  Adults  are 
seldom  won  over  to  Christianity  and  when  won,  years  of 
instruction  are  necessary  to  eradicate  false  beliefs  and  to 
imbue  them  with  the  spirit  of  Christ. 


264 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


Hinduism . — The  Indian  is  predisposed  to  give  himself 
over  entirely  to  any  form  of  worship  presenting  an  attrac¬ 
tive  aspect.  Hinduism  is  such  a  cult.  It  loosely  embraces 
nearly  all  the  chief  truths  and  practices  of  Christianity. 
Every  mind  can  find  in  it  something  which  appeals  to  its 
peculiar  bent.  The  very  strength  of  Hinduism  lies  in  the 
convenient  flexibility  with  which  it  adapts  itself  to  the 
variety  of  human  characters  and  human  propensities.  Its 
highly  spiritual  and  abstract  side  is  absorbing  to  the  phil¬ 
osophical  mind  of  the  metaphysician ;  to  the  man  of  affairs 
and  the  man  of  the  business  world  its  practical  and  con¬ 
crete  aspect  is  attractive ;  while  the  ascetic  and  ceremonial 
portion  of  the  cult  is  eagerly  adopted  by  the  man  of  feeling 
and  imagination.  Those  who  love  peaceful  ways  and 
seclusion  find  their  desires  gratified  in  the  quiescent  and 
contemplative  feature  of  Hinduism.  It  can  hold  out  a 
friendly  hand  to  the  worshiper  of  nature,  fetish,  animals, 
nay,  even  of  demons.  Idolatry  in  its  most  grotesque  forms 
and  many  degrading  varieties  of  superstition  are  bound 
up  in  this  cult  of  the  Hindus. 

Hinduism’ s  Tenets  and  Prejudice. — Heedless  to  say  this 
form  of  worship  is  a  fruitful  source  of  prejudice  against 
the  Christian  Religion.  The  Hindu  will  say:  “Is  Hindu¬ 
ism  not  centuries  older  than  this  newly  introduced  Chris¬ 
tianity  ?  Besides,  what  new  doctrines  does  Christianity 
offer  us  which  are  not  contained  in  our  Veda  (Book  of 
Laws)  V 7  As  a  matter  of  fact,  Hinduism  in  its  external 
appearance  bears  many  marks  of  similarity  to  Christian¬ 
ity.  In  its  literature  we  find  that,  alongside  of  pantheistic 
conceptions,  expression  is  given  to  the  sublime  ideas  of 
a  personal  God.  Hinduism  has  a  trinity  of  gods,  some¬ 
thing  to  correspond  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  It 
teaches  many  incarnations  and,  according  to  its  own  view, 
professes  faith  in  transubstantiation,  heaven  and  hell,  and 
propounds  a  doctrine  which  assumes  a  likeness  to  the 
Catholic  doctrine  on  purgatory.  Religious  feasts  are  cele¬ 
brated  with  much  pomp  and  solemnity,  while  pilgrim- 


DIFFICULTIES  AND  OBSTACLES 


265 


ages  galore  wend  their  way  to  favorite  religious  resorts. 
Hinduism  likewise  boasts  of  its  saints.  Their  Sadhu 
(Book  of  Doctrines)  prescribes  a  list  of  severe  penances 
and  sufferings  which  strikingly  recall  the  extraordinary 
mortifications  of  the  Saints  of  Christ.  All  these  time- 
honored  beliefs  and  practices  naturally  exert  a  command¬ 
ing  influence  on  the  natives  and  rear  a  harrier  of  prejudice 
in  the  face  of  Christianity. 

Hindus,  with  rare  exceptions,  are,  as  mentioned  above, 
utterly  indifferent  to  the  Christian  Faith  and  often  give 
evidence  of  the  worst  sort  of  inconsistency  and  prejudice. 
One  typical  example  is  brought  to  our  notice  by  a  mis¬ 
sionary  who  became  familiar  with  a  prominent  Hindu, 
Pranah  Chandery.  This  Indian  was  a  highly  educated 
person,  having  been  graduated  from  the  University  of 
Calcutta.  Quick  to  catch  up  and  imitate  the  spirit  of  his 
educators  and  of  Europeans,  he  adopted  European  modes 
of  life  in  his  home,  clothing,  language  and  manners.  By 
birth  he  was  of  the  high  caste  of  Brahmans.  He  spoke 
with  predilection  on  religious  subjects,  claiming  that  he 
had  repeatedly  read  the  Scriptures  and  believed  in  the 
Divinity  of  Jesus  Christ.  During  a  conversation  one  day 
the  missionary  and  the  Hindu  touched  on  theological  and 
philosophical  questions. 

The  priest  asked  him  whether  he  believed  in  a  God. 
“I  do  not,”  came  the  curt  reply.  Thereupon  the  mission¬ 
ary  proceeded  to  demonstrate  the  existence  of  God,  and 
after  a  long  talk  on  the  subject  the  Hindu  broke  in  with 
a  “Yes,  that  is  right;  I  am  of  the  same  opinion.”  “But,” 
continued  the  priest,  “what  do  you  hold  about  the  essence 
of  the  soul?”  Without  hesitation  the  Hindu  responded: 
“I  believe  that  man  has  an  immortal  soul  which  will  be 
judged  after  death  according  to  the  good  and  bad  actions. 
Clearly  there  is  a  retribution  in  the  next  world.”  “Quite 
correct,”  interposed  the  priest,  “but  according  to  what’ 
book  of  laws  will  the  soul  be  judged  ?  How  do  you  know 
what  is  good  and  what  is  bad  ?”  “My  conscience  tells  me 


266 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


that,”  responded  the  Hindu,  “and  besides  those  points  are 
contained  in  the  Veda/3  Knowing  the  Hindu’s  attitude 
the  priest  showed  him  that  the  Veda  had  not  the  stamp 
of  genuine  authority  and  pointed  out  its  deficiencies  and 
contradictions,  and  on  the  other  hand  laid  before  his 
eyes  the  genuineness  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  portrayed 
the  unity  and  beauty  of  the  religion  founded  by  Jesus 
Christ,  recalled  the  miracles  and  promises  of  the  Savior, 
and  spoke  of  the  celibacy  of  the  priests  and  religious. 
Here  the  Hindu  winced  and  his  answer  revealed  the  chasm 
gaping  between  the  religious  viewpoint  of  missionaries 
and  heathen.  “Your  Sacred  Scriptures,”  cried  the  Hindu 
in  an  angry  tone,  “are  as  deficient  and  contradictory  as 
any  book.  The  Christian  Religion  may,  in  substance,  be 
beautiful,  but  it  is  far  from  practical  or  reasonable.  A 
proof  of  it  is  found  in  our  very  midst.  All  the  English¬ 
men  with  whom  I  am  acquainted  are  Christians,  but  they 
are  morally  more  corrupt  than  the  Hindus.  Regarding 
celibacy  as  the  Christian  Catholics  require  it,  it  is  simply 
a  dream,  it  is  utterly  impossible.”  After  the  conversation 
the  priest  often  visited  him  and  tried  to  win  him  by  kind¬ 
ness  and  patience,  but  to  no  avail.  The  Hindu’s  views 
had  become  part  and  parcel  of  his  life,  and  no  one  could 
alter  his  opinions.  The  priest  and  Hindu  continued  good 
friends  to  the  end.2 

Hinduism3 s  Popularity. — Hinduism,  despite  its  external 
similarity  with  Christianity,  is  nevertheless  devoid  of  any 
genuine  inner  value.  Its  doctrines  are  vague  and  fanciful 
and  so  exaggerated  that  the  soul  of  the  adherent  loves  and 
seeks  the  fantastic  and  chimerical  rather  than  any  reason¬ 
able  truths  and  sound  tenets  of  the  Christian  Religion. 
Its  very  vagueness  and  adaptability  make  it  so  attractive 
and  gains  for  it  an  ever  increasing  number  of  devotees. 
For  3,000  years  this  cult  has  been  cherished  and  professed 
by  the  Indians.  The  last  census  showed  the  population 

2  Bericht  ueber  die  N ordtirolische  Kapuziner- Mission  von  Bettiah 
und  Nepal ,  Innsbruck,  1909,  p.  48  ff. 


DIFFICULTIES  AND  OBSTACLES 


267 


of  British  India  to  be  319,075,132,  souls,  of  which  more 
than  217,500,000  or  sixty-nine  per  cent  are  adherents  of 
Hinduism.  The  aggregate  of  Christians  of  all  sects 
amounted  to  but  3,876,203,  while  the  Catholics  of  India, 
Burma  and  Ceylon  numbered  2,913,368  souls.  Thus  the 
religious  system  of  the  Hindus  claims  the  overwhelming 
majority  of  inhabitants  and  flourishes  vigorously  through¬ 
out  the  land.  With  this  class  of  people  the  missionaries’ 
efforts  bear  small  fruit,  and  their  teaching  seldom  arouses 
them  from  their  slumber  of  indifference,  save  when  the 
heathen  gives  vent  to  wounded  feelings  of  prejudice.  Hin¬ 
duism,  to  their  mind,  is  the  true  religion.  They  are 
obsessed  with  this  idea  and  are  simply  unable  to  discrim¬ 
inate  between  the  real  and  the  unreal.  Only  a  long  and 
indefatigable  preparatory  instruction  can  break  down  this 
brazen  wall  and  render  the  minds  of  the  Hindus  capable 
of  discerning  the  true  value  of  Christianity  and  the  inane 
worthlessness  of  Hinduism. 

Brahmans  and  Mohammedans.- — The  backbone  of  Hin¬ 
duism  in  India  are  the  Brahmans.  They  constitute  one 
of  the  most  influential  of  the  higher  castes ;  occupying  the 
highest  social  and  governmental  positions,  their  influence 
radiates  up  and  down  the  land.  The  Brahmans  as  a  class 
are  unmistakably  marked  as  a  conceited  and  proud  people. 
Feeling  convinced  of  the  superlative  merits  of  their  own 
manners  and  customs  they  deem  other  people  barbarous 
and  despicable  and  a  bar  raised  in  the  face  of  civilization. 
This  sort  of  pride  borders  on  the  ridiculous.  It  generates 
absurd  prejudices,  so  ingrained  in  the  very  heart  of  the 
Brahman  that  no  modern  innovation  of  dynasty  or  power 
effects  the  smallest  change  in  their  mode  of  thinking  and 
acting.  Arrogance  and  haughtiness  are  synonymous  with 
Brahman.  Be  he  rich  or  poor,  unfortunate  or  prosperous, 
the  Brahman  stands  wedded  to  this  opinion,  that  he  is  the 
most  noble  and  most  excellent  of  created  beings,  while  the 
rest  of  mankind  lies  infinitely  beneath  his  exalted  majesty. 
The  Mohammedans  who  form  twenty-one  per  cent  of 


268 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


British  India  are  likewise  infested  with  the  caste  system 
and  many  other  Hindu  characteristics.  They  are  increas¬ 
ing  more  rapidly  than  the  Hindus,  and  their  conversion  is 
a  task  equally  as  formidable  as  that  of  converting  the 
Brahmans.  To  deal  successfully  with  such  characters  is 
an  achievement  which  no  one,  save  the  missionary  who 
possesses  the  sterling  qualities  of  a  saint  and  hero,  can 
accomplish.  The  missionaries,  no  less  than  others  who 
are  considered  inferior  to  the  Brahmans,  are  objects  of 
scorn. 

Brahman  Prejudice. — If  the  Brahmans  are  told  of  any 
ingenious  contrivance  or  useful  discovery  made  by  a 
European  or  any  outsider,  they  scornfully  declare  it  a 
lie  and  turn  a  deaf  ear  to  the  speaker.  Nothing  but  their 
own  discoveries  are  in  their  eyes  true  and  great.  It  is 
precisely  the  same  spirit  of  conceit  which  leads  them  to 
discredit  every  book  written  by  a  foreigner.  Their  claim 
is  that  nothing  can  be  found  in  other  books  which  is  not 
contained  in  their  own.  Yes,  they  oftentimes  cannot  be 
prevailed  upon  to  establish  even  a  friendly  relation  with 
an  educated  European.  It  appears  that  the  feelings  of 
friendship  and  esteem  for  Europeans  have  well-nigh  been 
stifled  in  the  bosom  of  the  Brahmans,  for  too  often  do 
the  Europeans  shock  the  delicate  sensibility  of  the  haughty 
natives  by  their  utter  disregard  of  their  time-honored  cus¬ 
toms  and  practices.  The  Europeans,  without  any  ado, 
eat  the  flesh  of  the  cow,  which  is  a  sacred  thing  in  the 
eyes  of  the  natives,  and  are  consequently  held  guilty  of 
a  more  heinous  crime  than  if  they  partook  even  of  human 
flesh.  Again  some  Europeans  select  pariah  servants  and 
even  associate  with  the  women  of  this  lowest  and  most 
despised  class  in  India;  while  the  Brahman  feels  himself 
defiled  and  obliged  to  purify  himself  by  ablutions  if  even 
the  shadow  of  a  pariah  falls  on  him.  Another  grievance 
against  Europeans  is  that  the  wives  are  on  terms  of  inti¬ 
mate  familiarity  with  their  husbands,  while  the  Indian’s 
wife  in  many  cases  may  not  even  sit  in  his  presence.  They 


DIFFICULTIES  AND  OBSTACLES 


269 


even  take  offense  at  Europeans  for  wearing  shoes,  gloves, 
and  the  like,  when  these  are  made  of  animal  skins.  Thus 
indulging  a  rooted  distrust  of  their  fellow  men  the 
Brahmans  not  only  alienate  possible  friends  but  condemn 
themselves  to  a  narrow,  hard-judging,  self-centered  ex¬ 
istence,  taking  a  distorted  view  of  their  neighbor.  The 
prejudices,  being  more  than  skin-deep,  lead  the  Brahmans 
to  spurn  the  Europeans  and  not  infrequently  to  oppose 
plans  which  Europeans  propose  for  improvement  of  con¬ 
ditions  in  India. 

Of  course,  the  missionary  receives  the  same  maltreat¬ 
ment  at  the  hands  of  the  Indian.  He  is  rarely  accorded 
a  welcome,  but  rather  met  with  words  of  mistrust  and 
contempt.  It  is  extremely  difficult  for  a  missionary  to 
gain  a  genuine  and  disinterested  friend  among  the  Brah¬ 
mans.  So  thoroughly  are  they  schooled  in  deceit  and 
hypocrisy  that  they  will  for  a  long  time  feign  friendship 
with  even  the  missionary,  but  in  the  end  the  mask  will  be 
torn  off  and  the  true  Brahmanic  nature  shown  in  all  its 
horror.  It  can  readily  be  discerned  that  to  achieve  any 
success  among  people  of  such  a  depraved  character  and 
malicious  turn  of  mind  is  a  task  which  tests  the  sterling 
qualities  of  even  the  most  heroic.  The  missionary,  indeed, 
does  his  utmost  to  stem  the  tide  of  this  narrow-mindedness 
and  conceit,  but  after  all  he  realizes  that  the  best  means 
are  indomitable  patience  and  devout  prayer. 

The  Brahmans  and  Mohammedans  in  Power. — The 
Brahmans  and  Mohammedans,  for  the  most  part,  have 
the  governmental  proceedings  and  official  business  in  their 
own  hands.  The  pendulum  of  government  and  business 
swings  smoothly  according  to  their  wish  and  desire.  The 
first  to  feel  the  selfishness  and  heartlessness  of  the  Brah¬ 
mans  in  office  are  the  poor.  Diminishing  their  wages, 
taking  advantage  of  them  in  every  possible  way,  they  re¬ 
duce  the  poor  to  a  hopeless  and  very  pitiable  plight.  This 
crying  injustice  cannot  wholely  be  charged  to  the  Eng¬ 
lish,  for  the  Brahman  and  Mohammedan  officials  are 


270 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


strong  by  a  vast  majority,  and  most  all  financial  affairs 
are  directed  by  them.  The  Brahmans  are  indeed  stu¬ 
diously  careful  not  to  betray  one  another  in  their  under¬ 
handed  work.  In  dishonesty,  hypocrisy,  hard-heartedness, 
jealousy,  craftiness  and  the  entire  train  of  such  vices,  they 
are  schooled  in  a  masterful  way.  This  is  the  opinion  of 
perhaps  all  who  have  lived  with  the  Brahmans  for  any 
great  length  of  time.  The  English  officers,  too,  are  well 
aware  of  the  existing  conditions.  “But  what  should  we 
do  ?”  they  plead.  “If  we  oust  one,  another,  no  better  but 
likely  far  worse,  will  be  chosen  to  fill  his  place/*’  So  crafty 
are  they  that  no  overseer  can  outdo  them,  and  no  oppressed 
person  will  venture  to  bear  witness  against  these  favorite 
sons  of  the  gods.  But  to  exonerate  the  English  altogether 
would  be  to  distort  the  plain  truth,  for  English  mismanage¬ 
ment  is  admitted  by  candid  Englishmen  themselves. 

If  ever  an  English  official  convicted  a  Brahman  of  fraud 
or  deceit  however  justly,  then,  indeed,  would  he  bring  a 
hornet’s  nest  about  his  ears.  Seldom  does  such  an  in¬ 
stance  occur.  Nevertheless  the  entire  caste  of  Brahmans 
incessantly  complains  of  the  “tyranny  of  English  rule.” 
This  manner  of  acting,  so  hostile  to  Christian  charity, 
beautifully  described  by  St.  Paul,  hampers  the  true  prog¬ 
ress  of  Christianity  in  no  small  degree. 

Conversions  among  Brahmans. — A  Jesuit  missionary 
observes  that  conversion  of  Brahmans  is  a  grave  matter. 
Prudence  calls  for  a  slow  and  cautious  procedure,  for  con¬ 
verting  a  Brahman  is  an  undertaking  which  might  bring 
frightful  consequences  in  its  wake.  If  the  priest  be  guided 
by  sentiment  he  will  bring  the  prospective  convert  to  ruin 
rather  than  to  the  coveted  goal.  It  becomes  an  utter 
necessity,  then,  that  the  missionary  correct  the  self- 
conceit  and  sensitiveness,  and  thus  sober  the  proud  Brah¬ 
man.  From  experience  the  priest  knows  that  he  must 
show  himself  firm  and  energetic  in  receiving  the  convert- 
to-be,  else  he  but  prepares  for  himself  a  maze  of  unpleas¬ 
ant  deceptions.  It  is  asserted  that  among  the  fourteen 


DIFFICULTIES  AND  OBSTACLES 


271 


Brahmans  first  baptized  there  was  a  Judas.  Such  events 
are  surprising  to  no  missionary  who  bends  all  his  efforts 
to  an  immense  task  which  is  but  in  its  infancy.3 

Bright  Prospects. — However,  there  are  some  bright 
prospects.  During  recent  years  the  Jesuit  College  at 
Trichinopoly  and  St.  Xavier’s  College  at  Bombay  have 
been  quietly  and  steadily  removing  the  deep  prejudices 
obsessing  the  minds  of  the  Indian  students.  The  Brah¬ 
mans  and  other  castes  are  strongly  represented  on  the  stu¬ 
dent  list.  At  the  present  time  the  college  counts  at  Trichin¬ 
opoly  2,476  scholars;  of  these  the  overwhelming  majority 
(1,825)  are  pagans.  Needless  to  say,  this  college  exer¬ 
cises  a  powerful  influence  for  good  over  the  upper  classes 
in  India.  The  students  invariably  go  forth  into  the  world 
with  a  love  and  reverence  for  their  teachers.  The  work, 
if  carried  on  from  year  to  year,  will  gradually  tear  down 
the  bulwark  of  prejudice  raised  against  Christianity  by 
the  higher  castes  of  Indians. 

Womans  Lot. — One  of  the  most  conspicuous  of  the 
sad  features  of  heathen  countries  is  the  lamentable  lot 
of  woman.  In  1908  A.  Zimmerman  stated  that,  “one  of 
the  most  terrible  abuses  in  India  is  the  systematical 
degradation  of  the  female  sex  which  begins  even  in  early 
youth.”4  Up  until  recent  years  woman  was  considered 
so  base  and  low  that  the  natives  thought  little  of  the 
horrible  custom  of  destroying  girl  babies.  A  proof  of 
this  is  found  in  the  reform  decree  issued  in  1907  by  the 
viceroy,  Juanschikai.5  It  is  one  of  the  principal  precepts 
taught  in  the  Hindu  books  and  generally  recognized  as 
true,  that  woman  should  be  kept  in  a  state  of  subjection 
and  dependence  during  her  lifetime  and  under  no  cir¬ 
cumstances  should  she  be  allowed  to  become  independent. 
Woman  is  bound  to  obey  her  parents  while  unmarried, 
and  is  subject  to  her  husband  and  mother-in-law  when 

3  Die  katholisvhen  Missionen,  Freiburg,  1897,  Vol.  XXVI,  p.  86. 

4  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  Vol.  XV,  p.  689. 

5  Ibidem. 


272 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


married.  If  she  become  a  widow  she  still  has  no  liberty, 
but  her  own  sons  are  her  masters. 

Wives’  Lot. — Until  recent  times  the  Indian  woman  was 
treated  simply  as  a  plaything.  She  had  to  be  ever  ready 
to  pander  to  her  husband’s  least  will  and  fancy.  She  was 
not  a  companion  to  share  her  husband’s  thoughts.  She 
was  not  a  wife  on  whom  he  would  lavish  his  love,  care 
and  affection .  Proud,  overbearing,  he  was  her  supreme 
master  and  she  was  fortunate  in  having  the  honor  of 
sharing  his  bed  and  board.  Among  the  women  few  were 
happy  with  and  beloved  by  those  to  whom  parents  had 
bound  them  for  life.  Even  to-day  the  choice  of  a  husband 
is  rarely  granted  the  Indian  maiden.  In  early  infancy 
she  is  generally  singled  out  and  betrothed  to  her  future 
husband.  The  statistics  of  1911  show  that  one  of  every 
five  girls  among  certain  high  castes  was  married  when 
below  the  age  of  twelve.6  In  recent  years  the  status  of 
women  has  changed  considerably,  at  least  in  many  locali¬ 
ties.  To-day  it  is  often  the  case  that  a  husband  is  jeal¬ 
ously  fond  of  his  wife,  and  makes  no  secret  of  his  concern 
for  her  when  traveling  from  place  to  place  or  at  feast 
gatherings,  such  as  the  Bathing  Festivity  held  yearly  at 
Allahabad  at  the  junction  of  the  two  rivers,  Ganges  and 
Jamna.  Though  the  status  of  women  has  changed  for 
the  better,  there  still  remains  much  to  be  desired.  The 
Indian  woman  is  by  no  means  on  an  equal  footing  with 
her  husband. 

Mothers  and  Children. — The  relation  between  mothers 
and  their  children  does  not  always  measure  up  to  the 
standard  of  Christian  charity.  In  the  past  this  became 
evident  especially  in  distressing  times  when  mothers  were 
wont  to  sell  their  offspring  for  a  mite  or  a  crumb.  The 
first  place  sought  for  bargaining  was  the  mission  station. 
If  the  Catholic  missionaries  could  not  pay  the  price  the 
parents  turned  to  the  Protestants  to  make  the  sale,  or  often 
too,  they  cruelly  flung  the  children  into  the  gutter  to  be 

6J.  C.  Houpert,  S.  J.,  op.  c.,  p.  24. 


A  Girl  in  Her  Best  Dress.  Women  Wearing  Caste  Ornaments 


DIFFICULTIES  AND  OBSTACLES 


273 


relieved  of  the  burden.  But  the  indiscriminate  selling 
of  the  children  is  no  longer  practiced.  The  Government 
has  taken  these  matters  in  hand  and  missionaries,  Cath¬ 
olic  and  non-Catholic,  can  no  longer  contract  to  keep 
waifs  without  the  sanction  of  the  civil  officer  in  charge  of 
the  district.  But  despite  the  legislation,  mothers  make 
desperate  attempts  to  bargain  off  their  children.  When, 
starvation  and  pestilence  reign  supreme  women  often  kill 
their  children  to  prevent  their  death  in  any  other  way. 

Womans  Isolation. — It  is  only  seldom  and  with  the 
greatest  difficulty  that  male  missionaries  can  gain  access 
to  the  Indian  woman.  It  is  the  custom  in  India  that 
men  let  the  women  to  themselves  entirely.  Whether  they 
travel  abroad  or  are  occupied  with  household  affairs,  the 
men  never  trouble  themselves  to  speak  or  associate  with 
the  women.  The  missionary,  too,  is  expected  to  adopt  this 
mode  of  action,  consequently  his  opportunities  to  con¬ 
verse  with  the  Indian  women  on  religious  matters  are 
extremely  rare. 

Womans  Ignorance. — Even  if  he  chances  to  approach 
the  women  he  again  finds  himself  confronted  with  new 
difficulties.  In  the  past  the  education  of  women  was  so 
neglected  that  they  were  entirely  incapable  of  accepting 
Christian  tenets  without  prolonged  preparatory  instruc¬ 
tion.  To-day  more  attention  is  given  to  the  education  of 
girls,  yet  the  vast  majority  of  them  remain  unlettered  and 
unschooled,  despite  the  fact  that  they  are  possessed  of 
talents  of  the  highest  order.  The  census  of  1911  showed 
that  only  one  per  cent  of  women  could  read  and  write. 
The  Indian  argues  thus :  Of  what  use  are  learning,  accom¬ 
plishments,  etc.,  in  household  affairs  ?  True,  they  count 
for  little  in  the  domestic  degradation  and  servitude  to 
which  the  Indian  girl  is  subjected.  Her  education  con¬ 
sists  in  a  mere  knowledge  of  how  to  grind  and  boil  rice, 
and  how  to  attend  to  domestic  matters  which  are  neither 
numerous  nor  difficult  to  manage.  A  semblance  of  edu¬ 
cation  is  afforded  the  courtesans  whose  avocation  it  is  to 


274 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


dance  in  the  temples  and  at  public  celebrations.  Prosti¬ 
tutes  likewise  are  taught  to  read,  sing  and  dance.  But 
for  a  respectable  woman  to  read  and  write  was  and  is 
still  in  many  localities  regarded  as  a  disgrace.  Had  she 
any  knowledge  of  these  arts  she  would  be  ashamed  to  use 
or  acknowledge  it.  Even  needlework  was  formerly  pro¬ 
hibited;  but  of  recent  years  it  has  been  taught  in  the 
girls’  schools.  This  is  a  very  grave  situation,  and  a 
Jesuit  missionary  writing  in  Die  katholischen  Missionen 
says  that  unless  the  girls  are  reached  by  the  missionaries’ 
influence  the  whole  missionary  endeavor  will  be  a  poor 
affair. 

Wives  and  Widows. — The  Indian  wife  is  so  accustomed 
to  hard  and  domineering  treatment  on  the  part  of  her 
husband  that  she  is  amazed  if  he  adopts  a  more  gentle 
manner.  Widows  in  particular  are  looked  upon  with 
utmost  scorn.  The  very  meeting  with  a  widow  is  thought 
to  bring  ill  luck.  She  is  called  by  the  most  reproachful 
and  opprobrious  names.  She  is  stamped  with  the  seal 
of  contumely  and  deprived  of  the  last  crumb  of  consola¬ 
tion  in  this  cruel  world.  To  remarry  would  he  to  leap 
from  the  frying  pan  into  the  fire,  for  in  such  a  case  the 
woman  is  utterly  cut  off  from  all  intercourse  with  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  community.  These  sad  conditions  are  far 
from  being  in  accord  with  the  charity  of  Christ. 

Caste  System. — We  have  seen  that  a  feature  peculiar 
to  the  Indian  is  his  tendency  to  classify  his  neighbors 
and  arrange  them  into  castes.  This  is  done  with  a  view, 
not  to  the  religious  belief,  but  to  the  social  status  of  the 
individual.  The  Hindu  Law  Books  split  the  people  into 
four  chief  categories — the  Sudra  or  manual  worker,  the 
Aryan  Vaisya  or  farmer  and  merchant,  the  Kshattriya  or 
warrior,  and  the  Brahman  or  priest  and  teacher.  Besides 
these,  Indian  scholars  count  up  some  400  other  castes 
which  again  have  their  sub-castes.  There  is  no  entrance 
to  the  four  higher  castes  except  by  birth.  In  other  coun¬ 
tries  members  of  society  may  gradually  rise  from  a 


DIFFICULTIES  AND  OBSTACLES 


275 


lower  to  a  higher  position  in  social  life.  Not  so  in  India. 
There  birth  alone  determines  the  social  position  a 
person  is  to  enjoy  during  his  sojourn  on  the  Indian 
Peninsula. 

Cause  of  Caste. — “The  real  cause  of  the  caste  system,” 
says  Pr.  Houpert,  S.  J.,  “is  that  spirit  of  selection  and 
exclusiveness,  due  to  a  variety  of  conditions,  which  has 
worked  for  centuries  and  split  society  into  a  thousand 
fragments.”  7  Castes  and  sub-castes  are  always  forming. 
Social  customs,  status,  occupation,  may  draw  stray  fami¬ 
lies  together  and  eventually  a  new  caste  or  sub-caste  is 
created.  Concomitant  with  the  rise  and  growth  of  castes 
is  the  social  precedence  which  must  be  yielded  to  the 
castes  in  keeping  with  their  prominence  and  dignity.  The 
Brahmans,  Sudras,  etc.,  constitute  the  higher  castes,  while 
the  pariah  is  the  lowest  and  most  detested.  Members  of 
this  caste  are  dubbed  the  “untouchables,”  although  to  this 
day  they  are  utterly  ignorant  of  their  “polluting  capaci¬ 
ties.”  Any  intercourse  whatever  with  the  pariah  is 
thought  to  contaminate  a  member  of  the  high  caste,  while 
familiarity  with  the  pariah  spells  expulsion  from  a  high 
caste. 

Difficulty  with  High  Caste. — Naturally,  the  most  en¬ 
thusiastic  in  supporting  the  caste  system  are  those  who 
would  lose  most  by  its  abolition.  A  missionary,  being 
favorably  impressed  by  a  high  caste  man,  once  asked  him 
about  the  Faith  and  received  this  emphatic  reply:  “I 
will  never  leave  my  caste  until  I  am  about  to  die ;  then 
I  shall  allow  you  to  baptize  me.”  This  is  typical  of  the 
attitude  of  the  members  of  high  castes.  The  high  caste 
man,  loath  to  relinquish  his  high  dignity  or  social  rank, 
readily  adapts  himself  to  the  customs,  practices,  nay, 
even  to  the  prejudices  in  vogue  among  persons  of  his  own 
social  position.  Caste,  then,  forms  one  of  the  chief  ob¬ 
stacles  to  conversions  to  Christianity  owing  to  the  fear  of 
social  ostracism.  “Caste/’  as  a  Protestant  writer  ex- 

7  J.  C.  Houpert,  S.  J.,  op.  o.,  p.  19. 


276 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


presses  it,  “keeps  India  away  from  Christ.  It  is  the 
supporting  wing  of  Hinduism,  the  fort  whose  outworks 
surround  the  inner  citadel  with  impregnable  walls.  It 
vivifies  Hinduism  in  its  progression  from  Yedism  to  devil- 
worship.  It  is  incompatible  with  Christianity.  It  is  the 
keystone  of  the  arch  of  Hinduism.”  8 

The  Hated  Pariah. — Nothing  is  more  detestable  in  the 
eyes  of  high  caste  men  than  the  pariah.  The  pariah,  to 
his  mind,  is  the  very  essence  of  the  odious,  hateful  and 
despicable.  A  Brahman  will  perform  several  ablutions 
if  but  the  shadow  of  a  pariah  falls  on  him.  This  spirit 
of  the  caste  has  thrived  for  centuries  among  the  native 
folk.  The  pariah  are  a  very  numerous  caste  and  it  is 
this  caste  which  supplies  the  vast  majority  of  converts 
to  Christianity.  Being  so  despised,  the  religion  they 
practice  is  equally  the  object  of  odium.  The  Christian 
Religion,  then,  is  to  the  high'  caste  man  as  contemptible 
as  the  very  pariah.  To  become  a  Christian  is  to  commit 
social  suicide.  Here  is  but  a  single  example  to  illustrate 
the  above  statement. 

Expulsion  from  Caste. — A  missionary  tells  how  a 
venerable  old  man  of  a  high*  caste,  Ampanna  by  name, 
was  converted  to  the  Christian  Religion.  In  his  caste  the 
old  man  had  wielded  a  remarkable  influence,  ranking 
second  to  the  high  priest  in  religious  festivities.  In  case 
of  the  priest’s  absence  Ampanna  officiated  in  the  dignified 
capacity  of  high  priest.  No  one  thought  it  possible  that 
a  man,  occupying  so  lofty  a  position  in  social  life,  would 
ever  so  far  debase  himself  as  to  embrace  the  religion  prac¬ 
ticed*  by  the  low  pariah.  The  proud  high  caste  men  stood 
aghast  at  such  an  occurrence,  their  wrath  was  aroused 
to  the  highest  pitch.  And  just  as  the  Roman  matron, 
Lucia,  was  betrayed  by  her  own  son,  Eutropius,  so  Am¬ 
panna  was  delivered  into  the  enemies’  hands  by  his  own 
child.  Standing  before  the  stern  court,  asked  whether 
he  was  a  Christian,  the  venerable  old  man  replied  with- 

8  Ibidem,  p.  22. 


DIFFICULTIES  AND  OBSTACLES 


277 


out  a  tremble:  “Yes!  I  am  a  Christian  and  will  remain 
a  Christian ;  do  what  you  please.”  Forthwith  he  was  for¬ 
mally  excommunicated  from  his  caste  and  disowned  by 
his  very  family.9 

What  Expulsion  Means. — To  be  expelled  from  a  caste 
is,  in  truth,  a  terrible  punishment.  No  greater  misfor¬ 
tune  can  befall  the  native  of  India.  The  convert  cuts 
himself  as  a  dead  branch  from  Indian  society,  from  family, 
from  everything  most  dear  to  the  human  heart.  His 
wife,  his  children  and  often  his  possessions  are  alienated 
from  him.  He  is  an  outcast,  shunned  as  a  leper.  His 
abandonment  is  heart-rending,  and  he  is  to  suffer  unaided 
and  die  as  a  brute  in  the  depths  of  the  wilds.  In  his  dis¬ 
tress  there  is  no  hand  to  render  assistance;  he  can  not  go 
to  the  village  spring  to  fetch  water;  his  wife  refuses  him 
food;  his  house  is  denied  him;  his  own  children  mock  at 
him.  Save  for  his  brethren  in  the  Christian  Religion, 
he  stands  alone  and  forsaken  in  the  cruel  world  of 
India. 

It  does  not  always  and  invariably  follow  that  converts 
are  thrust  out  from  their  families,  yet  it  is  of  common 
occurrence.  Upon  reading  a  detailed  account  of  the  per¬ 
secution  inflicted  on  the  Catholic  Brahman  converts  in 
the  year  1896  one  would  be  inclined  to  think  that  they 
lived  in  the  cruel  days  of  the  Roman  Nero. 

Recent  Developments  regarding  Caste. — It  is  consol¬ 
ing,  however,  to  know  that  a  few  intelligent  Indians  have 
for  years  taken  a  strong  stand  against  the  caste  system. 
Many  societies,  too,  have  exerted  their  efforts  for  caste 
abolition.  Some  of  the  modern  social  reformers  are  op¬ 
posed  to  complete  caste  abolition,  but  are  straining  every 
effort  to  remedy  the  evil  of  disunion  and  isolation  result¬ 
ing  from  excessively  subdividing  castes.  In  India  the 
natives  themselves  are  chiefly  responsible  for  identifying 
religion  with  caste.  The  missionaries,  however,  now  gen¬ 
erally  admit  that  caste  is  primarily  a  social  and  not  a 
0  Die  katholischen  Missionen ,  Freiburg,  1907,  Vol.  XXXV,  p.  229  ff. 


278 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


religions  institution.  It  is  tlieir  chief  purpose,  then,  to 
divorce  caste  system  from  religion.10 

During  the  World  War  many  a  barrier  of  caste  preju¬ 
dice  was  broken  down.  Owing  to  the  army’s  mode  of  life 
the  soldiers  were  unable  to  adhere  to  the  rigid  observance 
of  many  of  the  fine  rules  and  niceties  peculiar  to  the  castes. 
Another  important  step  forward  has  been  taken  by  the  Ma¬ 
harajah  of  Baroda,  who  is  recognized  as  one  of  the  most 
progressive  men  of  India.  He  has  a  common  folk-school 
in  his  district.  Besides,  he  was  instrumental  in  making 
the  law  that  the  court,  at  the  request  of  any  member  of  a 
caste,  can  abolish  caste  precepts,  so  that  the  liberated 
caste  member  can  be  neither  punished  nor  cast  from  so¬ 
ciety.  Furthermore  the  court  is  invested  with  the  power 
to  abolish  precepts,  if  they  run  counter  to  general  customs 
or  the  common  good,  if  they  forbid  marriage  between  mem¬ 
bers  of  different  castes,  if  they  restrict  in  any  unneces¬ 
sary  way  freedom  of  travel,  if  they  tend  to  damage  the 
health  or  morality  of  the  people,  and,  finally,  if  they  are 
disapproved  of  by  at  least  one-fourth  of  the  mature  mem¬ 
bers  of  a  caste.11  This  is  wonderful  progress  and  fore¬ 
casts  a  bright  future  for  Christianity  within  the  jurisdic¬ 
tion  of  this  broad-minded  Indian  leader. 

Attitude  of  Church  to  Castes. — The  Catholic  Church, 
following  the  teachings  of  her  divine  Founder,  has  always 
cherished  and  protected  the  poor  and  the  downtrodden. 
Despite  the  caste  prejudice  and  hatred,  she  has  ever  urged 
her  missionaries  in  India  to  the  practice  of  charity  and 
benevolence  towards  the  oppressed  classes.  From  the 
earliest  times  down  to  the  present  day  the  Holy  See  has 
not  failed  to  declare  how  her  missionaries  are  to  deal  with 
the  poorer  classes  of  India.  In  the  celebrated  constitu¬ 
tions,  Omnium  Solicitudinum,  September  12,  1744,  Pope 
Benedict  XIV.  gave  regulations  for  the  administration 
of  the  sacraments  in  the  Indian  houses  and  for  the  re- 

10  J.  C.  Houpert,  S.  J.,  op.  c.,  p.  '23  ff. 

11  Die  kathoUschen  Missionen,  Freiburg,  1918,  Vol.  XLVI,  p.  160. 


DIFFICULTIES  AND  OBSTACLES 


279 


ligious  instructions  to  be  given  in  the  churches.  On  April 
9,  1783,  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda 
issued  an  instruction  denouncing  the  custom  of  segregat¬ 
ing  the  pariahs  from  the  rest  of  the  people  in  the  church, 
and  ordered  the  Malabar  missionaries  to  abolish  this 
abuse  from  their  regions.  In  a  letter,  July  26,  1865, 
this  same  Congregation  counseled  the  Vicar  Apostolic  of 
Pondicherry  to  admit  into  the  Catholic  schools  all  In¬ 
dians  even  those  of  the  lower  classes.  From  this  time  on¬ 
ward,  the  Holy  See  has  always,  in  her  letters  to  the 
Church  of  India  treating  on  this  subject,  enjoined  upon 
her  members  the  practice  of  brotherly  love  and  genuine 
Christian  charity  towards  all,  not  excluding  the  hated 
pariahs. 

These  instructions  are  the  guiding  principles  for  the 
missionary  of  India.  They  are,  however,  to  be  enforced 
with  the  greatest  tact  and  prudence.  The  missionary 
must  never  essay  to  attack  the  caste  system  directly,  as 
such  an  unwise  procedure  would  cause  more  harm  than 
good.  Nor  can  he  hope  to  ameliorate  the  social  condi¬ 
tions  over  night;  this  is  a  task  to  be  accomplished  only 
in  time  and  with  the  utmost  patience.  Most  success  will 
be  achieved  by  preaching  in  and  out  of  season  the  doc¬ 
trines  of  Christ  and  by  constantly  reminding  the  people 
of  the  instructions  of  the  Holy  See.  With  the  caste  peo¬ 
ple  the  missionary  must  insist  upon  generosity  of  heart, 
humility  and  charity ;  with  the  non-caste  people,  con¬ 
stancy,  patience  and  resignation. 

Further  aid  may  be  proffered  the  lower  classes  by  in¬ 
struction  and  education;  by  shielding  them  from  their 
tyrannical  masters ;  by  defending  them  in  their  just  rights 
before  the  civil  authority;  by  not  segregating  the  caste 
from  the  non-caste  people  in  the  churches.  Such  kindly 
acts  are  powerful  factors  for  the  uplift  of  the  lower 
classes.  They  strike  a  responsive  chord  in  the  heart  of 
the  downtrodden  that  will  often  lead  to  their  conversion. 
This  is  particularly  the  case  now,  when  many  of  the 


280 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


lower  classes,  seeing  brighter  prospects  before  them  if 
they  become  Christians,  are  eager  to  receive  instructions. 
And  if  neglected,  they  will  shortly  drift  to  the  Protestant 
camp  where  they  receive  cordial  welcome  and  timely  sup¬ 
port. 

Government’ s  Attitude  toward  Religion.— The  posi¬ 
tion  which  the  English  Government  occupies  in  respect 
to  religion  forms  rather  a  drawback  than  a  stimulus 
to  the  growth  of  Christianity.  She  has  pledged  neu¬ 
trality  toward  all  religions.  This  very  fact  implies  that 
she  will  countenance  even  the  various  forms  of  pagan 
worship.  Naturally  the  Indian  concludes  and  holds  fast 
to  the  principle  that  one  religion  is  as  good  as  another,  and 
he  finds  no  reason  whatsoever  why  he  should  relinquish 
his  hold  on  the  religion  of  his  forefathers  and  accept  the 
doctrines  of  Christ.  Little  wonder,  then,  that  so  many 
of  the  natives  are  found  infected  with  indifferentism. 

Divided  Christianity . — The  evil  influence  of  indiffer¬ 
entism  on  the  progress  of  the  true  Faith  is  only  increased 
by  the  discordant  teachings  of  the  many  Protestant  sects. 
One  preaches  a  different  doctrine  than  the  other,  while 
they  are  all  one  in  teaching  doctrines  contradictory  to 
the  Catholic  tenets.  Anent  this  question  of  divided  Chris¬ 
tianity  we  quote  the  Pev.  Ernest  Hull,  S.  J.,  in  The 
Examiner  (June  4,  1921,  p.  223).  “Nowadays,”  he  says, 
“the  air  is  thick  with  numerous  messages  all  claiming  to 
be  Christian,  often  accompanied  with  a  controversial 
spirit  which,  in  trying  to  discredit  other  messages,  dis¬ 
credits  them  all.  The  people  cannot  be  expected  to  dis¬ 
criminate.  The  only  thing  they  know  is  that  Christians 
disagree  among  themselves  as  to  what  their  own  religion 
consists  in,  and  the  whole  thing  assumes  an  appearance 
of  human  rivalry  which  is  not  calculated  to  impress  or 
breed  conviction.  Some  classes  of  missionaries,  more¬ 
over,  carry  on  a  policy  which,  instead  of  conveying  the 
idea  that  it  is  a  privilege  to  become  a  Christian,  rather 
conveys  the  idea  that  the  missionaries  for  some  motive 


DIFFICULTIES  AND  OBSTACLES 


281 


of  their  own  are  making  a  bid  for  allegiance,  for  which 
they  offer  worldly  inducements  such  as  education,  pecun¬ 
iary  help,  patronage  and  the  like,  and  thus  reduce  it 
practically  to  a  business  bargain.  Conversion,  instead  of 
being  looked  upon  as  a  heaven-sent  gift,  thus  comes  to  be 
regarded  as  a  human  acquiescence  which  is  purchased  by 
a  quid  pro  quo .  Such  expedients,  even  where  quite  legiti¬ 
mate  in  themselves,  have  at  least  the  disadvantage  of 
mixing  the  gold  of  spiritual  interests  with  the  dross  of 
temporal  interests ;  and  are  apt  to  ‘multiply  the  nation 
and  not  increase  the  joy.’  ” 

Although  the  missionaries  have  been,  and  are  still  con¬ 
fronted  by  the  formidable  hindrances  treated  in  this 
chapter,  yet  their  endeavors  have  not  been  futile.  For¬ 
tunately,  some  successes  have,  with  God’s  help,  been 
scored.  Others  must  follow,  for  Christianity  must  grow, 
expand  and  develop  in  the  tropical  land  of  the  Indian. 


CHAPTER  VI 


NATIVE  CLERGY 

When  treating  of  the  catechists  we  stated  that  the 
native  catechist  is  an  indispensable  factor  of  the  mission¬ 
ary  personnel.  Statistics  show  that  conversions  are  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  catechists.  The  native 
catechist  can  often  accomplish  more  than  the  foreign 
priest.  But  we  might  say  that  the  need  of  a  native  clergy 
is  by  far  the  most  important  requirement  of  the  foreign 
missions  to-day,  and  we  cannot  expect  to  see  our  Holy 
Religion  firmly  established  in  any  country  until  that 
country  has  its  well-developed  native  clergy.  At  first 
sight  this  seems  to  be  an  exaggerated  statement,  for,  some 
will  argue,  are  not  the  foreign  priests  doing  good  work, 
and  are  the  missions  not  flourishing  ?  The  foreign  priests 
are  doing  splendid  work  and  are  accomplishing  wonderful 
things.  On  the  surface  the  missions  are  in  a  flourishing 
condition,  owing  to  the  zeal  and  self-sacrifice  of  these 
missionaries,  but  until  these  missions  have  their  native 
clergy,  we  claim,  they  are  lacking  an  essential  requisite 
for  their  stability. 

Need  of  a  Native  Clergy . — That  the  need  of  a  native 
clergy  is  pressing  in  the  extreme,  no  one  doubts.  So 
great,  indeed,  is  this  need  that  the  Holy  See  has  found  it 
necessary  to  make  provisions  for  a  native  clergy  in  her 
Book  of  Laws.  When  treating  in  Canon  Law  of  vicars 
and  prefects  apostolic,  we  read,  “they  are  under  strict 
obligation  to  see  to  it  that  worthy  Christian  natives  or 
inhabitants  of  their  provinces  are  properly  trained  and 
raised  to  the  priesthood.’7  (Canon  305.)  In  his  corn- 

282 


NATIVE  CLERGY 


283 


mentary  on  this  Canon  the  Rev.  Charles  Augustine, 
O.  S.  B.,  D.  D.,  remarks :  “This  most  apostolic  injunction 
has  been  insisted  upon  in  various  apostolic  constitutions 
and  inculcated  again  and  again  by  the  S.  C.  Prop.  Fide 
(Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda).  Thus  on 
November  23,  1845,  this  Sacred  Congregation  enjoined 
that  natives  should  be  trained  and  employed,  not  only  in 
inferior  work,  such  as  catechizing,  but  also  as  mission¬ 
aries,  who  in  course  of  time  might  become  pastors  of 
souls  and  even  vicars  and  prefects  apostolic.  The  con¬ 
trary  practice  was  condemned  as  opposed  to  the  inten¬ 
tions  of  the  Holy.  See  and  out  of  keeping  with  the  spirit 
of  the  sacred  ministry.”  1 

Leo  XIII. — Time  and  again  the  popes  in  their  decrees 
have  insisted  on  the  need  of  a  native  clergy  in  the  mission 
fields.  Thus  Leo  XIII.,  in  his  encyclical  Ad  extremes 
orientis,  June  24,  1893,  addressed  to  the  bishops  of  In¬ 
dia,  treated  the  question  of  a  native  clergy  in  detail,  say¬ 
ing,  in  substance,  that  the  Church  of  India  will  never 
have  a  strong  foothold  in  that  country  until  a  native 
clergy  has  been  founded.  In  the  same  year  Leo  XIII. 
established  the  Papal  Seminary  at  Kandy.  Its  present 
enrollment  is  eighty-one  students.  Pope  Pius  X.  and  the 
late  Pontiff,  Benedict  XV.,  also  recognized  the  great  need 
of  a  native  clergy  for  India  and  said  that  it  was  their 
heart’s  desire  to  see  a  native  clergy  solidly  established  in 
that  land. 

Mgr.  Zaleski. — The  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  Zaleski,  former 
Apostolic  Delegate  to  India,  expressed  his  view  on  the 
matter  in  these  words :  “The  greatest  need  of  the  Church 
in  India  to-day  is  the  education  of  a  native  clergy.  It 
is  a  task  to  which  all  other  considerations  must  yield  the 
first  place.”  2 

Synods  and  Councils. — The  Synods  and  Provincial 

1  Rev.  Chas.  Augustine,  O.  S.  B.,  D.  D.,  A  Commentary  on  the  New 
Code  of  Canon  Law,  St.  Louis,  Vol.  II,  1918,  p.  320. 

2  Die  Jcatholischen  Missionen,  Freiburg,  Vol.  XXXV,  1906,  p.  10. 


284 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


Councils  of  Pondicherry  (1844),  Colombo,  Allahabad 
and  Bangalore  (1888),  Madras  (1889),  Bombay  (1893) 
and  more  recent  ones  all  agree  in  recognizing  the  abso¬ 
lute  necessity  of  a  native  clergy,  saying  that  the  Catholic 
Church  will  never  strike  deep  root  in  India  until  that 
land  gives  birth  to  its  own  indigenous  clergy.3 

The  Old  Problem. — The  problem  of  native  priests  is 
not  a  problem  of  recent  times.  Even  the  Apostles  and 
other  great  missionaries  of  the  early  days  recognized  the 
necessity  of  native  priests,  and  their  first  care  on  establish¬ 
ing  a  mission  was  to  train  natives  for  the  priesthood  so 
as  to  perpetuate  the  good  work  they  had  initiated.  Whole 
Europe  has  in  this  manner  been  won  over  to  the  Eaith. 
From  Borne  the  Faith  was  brought  to  the  Gauls,  Celts, 
Anglo-Saxons,  Teutons  and  Slavs,  and  even  in  the  first 
generation  these  countries  were  blessed  with  a  native 
clergy  and  episcopacy  and  soon  took  their  place  in  the 
organism  of  the  Church  as  a  substantial  whole. 

Why  then  is  India  still  a  mission  country?  We  have 
heard  that  the  Eaith  had  been  brought  to  India  in  the 
very  first  centuries  of  Christianity.  Why  then  has  she 
not  experienced  the  same  phenomenal  growth  as  Europe  ? 
There  are  various  reasons  for  this,  but  the  primary  reason 
is  most  probably  the  dearth  of  native  priests.  Had  India, 
from  the  very  first  centuries  developed  a  hardy  native 
clergy,  she  would  to-day  no  longer  be  found  on  the  list  of 
missionary  countries. 

.  Reasons  for  a  Native  Clergy. — The  reasons  which 
speak  for  a  native  clergy  are  many  and  weighty.  We 
shall  now  set  forth  some  of  these  in  detail.  The  first 
great  difficulty  which  the  newly  arrived  missionary  in 
India  faces  is  that  of  a  new  language.  Oftentimes  years 
are  spent  in  acquainting  himself  with  it,  and  compara¬ 
tively  few  have  the  leisure  and  talent  to  master  com¬ 
pletely  the  many  dialects  spoken  in  the  various  districts. 
But  here  is  where  the  native  priest  has  the  advantage.  He 


3  Ibidem. 


Bishop  Baisandier,  S.J.,  of  Trichinopoly, 
with  Native  Priests. 


NATIVE  CLERGY 


285 


speaks  Lis  native  tongue  fluently,  he  adds  local  color,  and 
his  figures  and  modes  of  expression  are  more  adapted  to 
the  minds  of  the  natives,  whereas  the  foreign  priest  can¬ 
not  fully  live  himself  into  the  mode  of  thought  of  his 
adopted  country.  Besides  the  foreign  missionary  often¬ 
times  finds  that  the  climate  and  manner  of  life  in  a  for¬ 
eign  country  are  great  hindrances  to  his  zeal  for  souls. 
The  native  priest  has  another  advantage  over  the  foreign 
priest  in  this  that  he  is  perfectly  versed  in  the  manners 
and  customs  of  the  land ;  he  is,  moreover,  well  acquainted 
with  the  prejudices  and  vices  of  the  people,  and  has  a 
more  perfect  understanding  of  the  Indian  character  and, 
being  a  son  of  the  native  soil,  can  visit  many  places  from 
which  his  foreign  brother  is  barred.  The  native  priest 
has  easy  access  to  all  local  social  gatherings,  where  he 
makes  friends  with  his  fellow  men,  wins  their  confidence 
and  thus  paves  the  way  for  an  early  conversion. 

But  aside  from  all  these  obstacles,  the  foreign  priest, 
no  matter  how  closely  his  Christians  cling  to  him,  always 
remains  to  them  a  foreigner — a  stranger.  Many  of  the 
heathens  have  an  inborn  hatred  and  aversion  for  almost 
everything  foreign — the  missionary  not  excepted.  Po¬ 
litical  difficulties  between  countries  are  generally  at  the 
bottom  of  all  the  trouble.  India  is  a  practical  example. 
A  great  part  of  India  is  to-day  clamoring  for  indepen¬ 
dence;  the  natives  wish  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Great 
Britain,  and  as  a  consequence  consider  almost  any  enter¬ 
prise  set  afoot  under  English  supervision  as  a  sign  of 
further  subjection  to  the  English  Crown.  Even  the  mis¬ 
sionary  is  considered  a  tool  in  the  hands  of  the  Govern¬ 
ment,  and  it  often  takes  years  to  convince  the  natives  that 
the  priest  is  not  looking  or  striving  for  temporal  conquest, 
but  that  he  is  only  desirous  of  bringing  to  them  the  light 
of  the  Faith. 

The  Government  itself,  although  Christian,  is  in  no 
small  part  responsible  for  the  slow  progress  of  Chris¬ 
tianity  in  India.  We  shall  pass  over  in  silence  the  black 


286 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


deeds  of  British  Officialdom  with  regard  to  the  spread  of 
the  Catholic  Religion  in  the  past.  Conditions  to-day  are 
somewhat  better,  but  much  still  remains  undone. 

So  far  we  have  considered  only  externals.  The  reasons 
which  speak  most  for  a  native  clergy  become  more  ap¬ 
parent  if  we  bear  in  mind  the  purpose  of  Catholic  mis¬ 
sionary  activity. 

The  Purpose  of  Catholic  Missionary  Activity.  Prop¬ 
agation. — The  purpose  or  object  of  Catholic  missionary 
activity  is  the  propagation,  perpetuation  and  full  de¬ 
velopment  of  the  Catholic  Faith  in  heathen  countries. 
But  this  threefold  purpose  can  hardly  be  attained  with¬ 
out  the  aid  of  a  well-organized  native  clergy.  We  have 
seen  that  the  Faith  was  brought  to  India  many  centuries 
ago.  Its  progress  has  been  slow  owing  to  the  scarcity  of 
laborers.  But  had  India  from  the  very  beginning  pos¬ 
sessed  its  native  clergy  it  might  long  ago  have  taken  its 
place  in  the  ranks  of  Christian  countries.  Throughout 
the  long  centuries  the  Indian  missions  were  solely  de¬ 
pendent  upon  and  drew  their  priests  from  Europe.  To¬ 
day  the  missions  face  a  most  critical  situation.  Pope 
Leo  XIII.,  as  early  as  1893  keenly  felt  the  need  of  a 
native  clergy  for  India.  Tie  urged  that  nothing  be  left 
undone  which  might  help  solve  this  problem.  But  since 
1893  the  Catholic  Faith  has  made  great  strides  in  India, 
so  much  so  that  the  supply  of  priests  is  no  longer  in  any 
proportion  to  the  demand.  The  missionary  recruits  from 
Europe  and  America  cannot  even  fill  the  vacancies  in  the 
ecclesiastical  ranks  much  less  keep  pace  with  the  steady 
increase  of  native  Christian  families. 

In  the  minds  of  those  who  have  a  right  and  who  are 
in  a  position  to  speak  on  the  matter  and  whose  authority 
we  all  respect,  the  solution  rests  with  a  native  clergy.  Yet 
some  will  say  that  the  native  does  not  make  a  successful 
missionary.  Were  this  true,  we  should  with  Mgr.  Zal- 
eski  place  the  blame  on  a  faulty  education.  The  native 
of  India  will  make  a  good  missionary  in  his  own  country 


NATIVE  CLERGY 


287 


if  the  right  methods  and  principles  of  missionary  activity 
are  inculcated  by  able  men.  If  not  all  are  adapted  for 
missionary  work,  their  bishop  can  and  will  establish  them 
in  well-organized  parishes  as  pastors  and  send  the  others, 
who  are  willing  and  capable,  out  into  the  wilds  to  convert 
the  millions  who  as  yet  have  heard  nothing  of  the  Chris¬ 
tian  Religion. 

Perpetuation. — If  the  native  priest  plays  or  rather 
should  play  an  important  role  in  the  initial  spread  of  the 
Gospel,  he  is  all  the  more  indispensable  for  the  perpetua¬ 
tion  and  stability  of  that  Gospel.  The  Catholic  Faith  is 
not  something  torpid,  something  dead;  it  is  a  living,  a 
life-giving  Faith,  and,  once  it  has  given  life,  wants  to 
make  itself  secure.  It  strives,  like  all  other  life,  for  self- 
preservation.  Once  Catholic  missionaries  have  led  a  peo¬ 
ple,  or  a  part  of  a  people,  out  of  the  murky  night  of  heath¬ 
enism  into  the  sunshine  of  Christianity  it  is  their  next 
great  work  to  see  that  this  people  does  not  fall  back  into 
the  dark  depths  from  which  it  has,  with  the  grace  of  God, 
so  happily  emerged.  This  the  missionaries  can  scarcely 
accomplish  without  the  aid  of  a  native  clergy.  History 
furnishes  us  with  sad  examples  of  flourishing  mission 
fields  that  were  utterly  destroyed  for  the  simple  reason 
that  the  missions  had  no  native  clergy.  The  time  of 
bitter  persecutions  has  not  yet  passed.  The  one  true 
Faith  will  be  hounded  as  long  as  the  world  stands.  For 
this  we  have  the  words  of  Christ :  “if  they  have  persecuted 
Me,  they  will  also  persecute  you.”  (John,  15:  20.) 

Undoubtedly  these  considerations  lend  more  weight  to 
the  claim  that  India  needs  a  native  clergy.  Besides  per¬ 
secutions,  countries  are  also  harassed  by  wars — foreign  as 
well  as  civil.  But  what  of  a  country  which  boasts  of  no 
native  clergy  and  which  imprisons  or  deports  from  her 
territories  all  foreigners  when  disorder,  revolution  and  war 
rule  supreme  and  that  unhappy  land  bleeds  at  every  pore ! 
The  supposition  is  not  arbitrary — history  substantiates  our 
contention  with  more  than  a  few  examples.  We  need  but 


288 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


recall  the  condition  of  the  Church  in  Japan  in  past  cen¬ 
turies.  If  India  were  never  to  have  a  native  clergy, 
more  harm  could  come  to  the  Church  in  India  in  one 
generation  than  one,  two  or  three  centuries  could  undo.  In 
fact,  the  loss  could  never  be  repaired.  And  should  for¬ 
eigners  never  again  be  allowed  to  set  foot  in  that  country, 
India  would,  most  likely,  sink  deeper  into  idolatry  and 
heathenism  than  it  ever  had  been  before. 

Full  Development  of  the  Church. — The  final  purpose 
of  Catholic  missionary  activity  is  the  full  development 
of  the  visible  Kingdom  of  Christ  here  on  earth  through 
the  incorporation  of  new,  vigorous,  self-supporting  native 
churches  into  the  organism  of  the  Church  Universal.4 
But  to  realize  this,  an  essential  prerequisite  is  that  the 
country  have  a  native  clergy.  In  order  that  the  Christian 
Religion  be  solidly  and  permanently  established  in  a  coun¬ 
try  it  is  necessary  that  it  be  naturalized  in  that  country, 
that  is,  it  must  strike  such  deep  roots  in  the  native  soil 
as  will  make  it  thrive  and  bring  forth  abundant  fruit 
independent  of  all  outside  influence.  It  must  give  birth 
to  its  own  domestic  presbytery.  This  being  once  solidly 
established,  a  native  episcopacy  and  hierarchy  will  soon 
follow. 

A  Review  of  the  Past. — Brom  what  has  been  said  we 
should  not  have  the  reader  conclude  that  until  now  noth¬ 
ing  has  been  done  to  solve  the  problem  of  a  native  clergy 
in  India.  If  the  much-vexed  problem  of  a  native  clergy 
has  not  been  solved  in  bygone  ages  we  cannot  place  the 
blame  on  the  early  European  missionaries.  Practically 
the  same  reason  holds  good  to-day  for  the  slow  develop¬ 
ment  of  a  native  clergy.  Celibacy  is  the  one  great  sacri¬ 
fice  that  the  native  of  India  is  unwilling  to  bring.  The 
early  missionaries  almost  despaired  of  ever  being  able 
to  implant  into  the  hearts  of  their  subjects  the  necessity 
of  a  priest’s  leading  a  celibate  and  abstemious  life.  This 
was  the  reason  why  the  early  missionaries  were  seemingly 

4  Die  TcatholiscJien  Missionen,  Freiburg,  Vol.  XXXV,  1906,  p.  13. 


NATIVE  CLERGY 


289 


over-deliberate  and  over-exacting  in  admitting  candidates 
to  tbe  reception  of  the  sacrament  of  holy  orders,  and 
it  is  also  the  main  reason  to-day  why  the  development  of 
a  native  clergy  is  a  hard  and  laborious  task.  As  early 
as  1542,  when  St.  Francis  Xavier  arrived  in  India  he 
found  there  a  seminary  for  native  priests  with  seventy- 
two  students.  The  founder  and  rector  of  the  institution 
was  P.  Diego  da  Borba.  Francis  found  the  mission  in  a 
poor  condition.  As  a  reason  he  gave  the  lack  of  zealous 
priests.  He  was  overjoyed  when  the  offer  was  made  to 
him  to  take  over  this  seminary  for  native  priests.  He 
did  so,  and  the  institution  marks  the  first  settlement  of 
Jesuits  in  Goa.  Fr.  Vincent,  a  Franciscan,  established 
a  similar  institution  at  Cranganore  in  1546.  The  good 
work  that  Francis  Xavier  had  inaugurated  was  thus  suc¬ 
cessfully  carried  on  by  his  brethren  in  religion  and  the 
Sons  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi. 

From  the  sixteenth  to  the  eighteenth  century  the  Jesuits 
had  no  less  than  six  seminaries  for  native  priests  along  the 
southwestern  coast  of  the  country  between  Goa  and  Cape 
Comorin.  They  were  situated  at  Goa,  Bassein,  Rachol, 
Wayticotta,  'Cochin  and  Ambalacatty.  It  must,  however, 
be  remembered  that  these  institutions  were  not  exclusively 
for  natives  of  India ;  native  students  from  Ceylon,  China, 
Japan  and  Africa  were  also  educated  here.  In  1629 
the  Archbishop  of  Cranganore  wrote  to  the  Congrega¬ 
tion  of  the  Propaganda  that  his  territory  counted  no 
less  than  300  native  priests,  educated  by  the  Jesuits.5  Be¬ 
sides  the  Jesuits,  the  Carmelites  and  Theatines  also  de¬ 
voted  their  energy  to  the  education  of  native  clergy. 

Although  the  success  of  these  early  beginnings  was  not 
in  proportion  to  what  could  reasonably  be  expected,  yet 
the  enterprise  cannot  be  styled  a  failure.  A  heavy  blow 
was  dealt  the  missions  when  Pombal  had  the  Jesuits 
expelled  from  India,  and  the  Society  of  Jesus  was  sup¬ 
pressed.  From  the  departure  of  the  Jesuits  dates  the 

8 Idem ,  1907,  Vol.  XXXV,  p.  76  ff. 


290 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


beginning  of  the  “Dark  Ages”  of  training  a  native  clergy. 
The  doors  of  the  best  institutions  of  learning  were  closed. 
The  French  Revolution  also  made  itself  keenly  felt  in  the 
French  Possessions  of  India.  But  the  deadliest  blows 
ever  inflicted  upon  the  development  of  a  worthy  native 
clergy  were  undoubtedly  concomitant  with  and  subsequent 
to  the  Indo-Portuguese  and  Goanese  Schisms. 

The  attitude  of  the  Portuguese  Government  toward  the 
Church  was  not  at  all  friendly.  The  Government  was 
determined  to  do  away  with  papal  supervision  in  Portu¬ 
guese  territories  and  thought  nothing  of  using  all  sorts  of 
wiles  and  machinations  to  attain  its  end.  As  early  as 
1658  in  Southern  India  the  education  of  the  youth  was 
neglected,  novitiates  of  Religious  Orders  were  closed  and 
native  priests  were  by  law  prohibited  to  function  as  min¬ 
isters  of  the  Gospel.  The  clergy,  generally  speaking, 
troubled  themselves  little  either  with  studies  or  spiritual 
matters.  Many  knew  little  or  nothing  of  Latin.  Others 
were  better  merchants  than  pastors.  Monasteries  were 
pillaged  and  sacked;  the  Pope’s  admonitions  fell  on  deaf 
ears,  and  his  Briefs,  on  hardened  hearts.  The  clergy,  in 
many  instances,  were  but  mere  puppets  of  the  temporal 
rulers.  When  the  European  missionaries  had  been  ex¬ 
pelled,  the  Indo-Portuguese  clergy  took  the  government 
of  the  Church  into  its  own  hands,  and  ecclesiastical  condi¬ 
tions  in  Portuguese  territories  were,  at  one  time,  so  bad 
that  every  episcopal  chair  with  the  exception  of  Goa  was 
vacant. 

The  archives  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda 
contain  many  letters  and  documents  graphically  describ¬ 
ing  and  most  vehemently  deploring  the  sad  state  of  affairs 
of  the  Church  in  India  during  these  dark  centuries.  A 
new  era  was  opened  with  the  arrival  of  the  Capuchin 
Friar,  the  Rt.  Rev.  Anastasius  Hartmann,  in  1850.  It 
was  left  to  him  to  strike  an  effective  blow  at  this  dissen¬ 
sion  and  strife.  How  well  he  succeeded,  we  have  heard. 

Now  that  peace  has  again  come  to  the  Church  in  far- 


NATIVE  CLERGY 


291 


away  India  and  the  Hierarchy  has  been  established,  all 
good  factors  have  been  set  in  operation  and  converge  on 
the  one  great  problem  of  solving  the  country’s  one  greatest 
problem — The  Problem  of  a  Native  Clergy. 

How  promising  the  outlook  is  may  be  seen  from  the  fol¬ 
lowing;  there  are  to-day: 

1  archdiocese  and  3  dioceses  in  which  native  priests  pre¬ 
dominate  ; 

4  vicariates  apostolic  under  the  sole  jurisdiction  of  native 
priests ; 

1960  native  priests  in  the  field  (India,  Ceylon,  Burma)  ; 
1320  European  priests; 

33  seminaries  for  native  students;  and 
1535  students  for  the  sacred  ministry,  108  of  whom  are 
members  of  Religious  Orders. 


APPENDIX 


Table  I. — Comparative  Statistics  of  Indian  Catholic  Missions:  1851-1921 


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Table  II. — Percentage  of  Increase  of  Separate  Ecclesiastical  Provinces 
During  the  Last  Two  Decennia:  1901-1921 


03  rs 

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This  table  is  taken  partly  from  Die  katholischen  Missionen,  Freiburg,  Vol.  XL,  1912,  p.  210,  with  corrections,  and  partly  constructed  on 
figures  supplied  by  Die  katholischen  Missionen,  Freiburg,  Vol.  L,  1922,  p.  195. 

The  decrease  in  the  figures  of  priests  for  Agra  in  1921  is  caused  by  the  banishment  of  the  Tyrolese  Capuchins  and  the  separation  of  the 
Patna  Diocese. 


TABLE  III -COMPARATIVE  STATISTICS  OF  CATHOLIC  MISSIONS  IN  INDIA:  JANUARY  1,  1908,  AND  JANUARY  1,  1922 

A  =  Archdiocese;  D  =  Diocese;  P  =  Prefecture  Apostolic;  V  =  Vicariate  Apostolio. 


Kumbakonam  D 


Kafristan  and  Kashmir 


Changanacherry  V  . 


Trincomalic  D  . 


Milan  Seminary 


Holy  Cross  Fathers 


Secular  Priests 


Mill  Hill  Fathers 


Congr.  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales 


Congr.  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales 


Mill  Hill  Fathers 


Secular  Priests 


Milan  Seminary 


Priests 


European  Native 
1922  1908  191 


-  ?  22 
— I— T 


Ohlatcs  of  Mary  Immaculate 


Oblatcs  of  Mary  Immaculate 


(Suppressed  1919) 


Mission  Posts 
and 

Stations 


Churches 

and 

Chapels 


-?| 

-?r 


277 
513 

113  I  140 


114 


126 


163 


379  |  500 
123  126 


11  I  ~ 

5497167127 


V«l  Y  yy  t  TUT8Cf  ^COmriof’thQ1f  S'  f'  PM  Handbuch,  Freiburg,  1908,  pn.  339  and  336;  Die  katholixhen 

AfiMionen,  Freiburg,  Vo  AXXIII  1905,  p  H-.  C.  Streit,  SUUutuch iJVcte.  :um  kathol  Mitsionsallat,  Steyl.  1906,  p.  009;  Die  kathol.  Miuionen,  Freiburg, 

p  110;  and  Private  Communication*^  °  Ind,<>'  *  Cevl<m' 1922,  Madraa;  Anale^  Ordinis  Miiorum  Capuccinorum,  Roma,  Vol.  XXXV I II.  1922, 


6  Pupils 

Catechume 

Adult  Convert 

8  PROM 

Paganism 

Semi¬ 

naries 

Semi¬ 

narians 

Orphan¬ 

ages 

022  1908 

1922 

190S  192 

2  1903f 

f  1921 

1904 

t 1 1 92( 

t  1904 1  ^  92C 

t  190 

t  1921 

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100 

395 

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>  17214 

27597 

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1988 

1129 

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15262 

40245 

47163 

1508 

3176 

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5 

6 

320 

1547 

156 

1800? 

32 

901 

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0 

6 

1620 

1700 

126 

170 

62 

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1 

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6 

5 

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250 

2000? 

330 

78 

130 

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4 

4 

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5117 

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301 

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9347 

5200. 

74 

119 

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1 

1 

151 

411 

4 

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5004 

46007 

no 

350 

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1 

1 

35 

38 

1 

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5901 

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5’ 

394 

— ? 

1 

1 

31 

36 

3 

3 

4650 

6383 

97 

118 

145 

270 

1 

1 

20 

30 

8 

9 

6012 

12664? 

245 

601 

523 

1 

1 

11 

33 

9 

14 

1483 

4057 

852 

4760 

850 

2896 

1 

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7 

7 

4 

8 

2260 

4000? 

1940 

450 

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1 

2 

5 

9 

13 

11 

1547 

3254 

700 

668 

404 

151 

1 

- 

2 

10 

6 

6 

5529 

7913? 

- 

779 

— ? 

1 

2 

30 

37 

19 

17 

3047 

3492? 

- 

126 

443 

- 

- 

0 

31 

6 

5 

4097 

5745? 

- 

494 

1077 

1 

1 

27 

40 

14 

8 

4239 

6526? 

482 

384 

293 

1 

1 

9 

12 

4 

4 

- 

654 

- 

3 

- 

5 

- 

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- 

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1625 

2242 

827 

16453 

257 

1492 

- 

1 

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23 

5 

4 

232 

709? 

28 

8 

93 

- 

- 

- 

- 

3 

4 

19861 

35627 

19? 

301 

138 

- 

1 

13 

60 

1 

4 

16298 

150007 

50? 

15400? 

307 

705 

- 

1 

52 

93 

1 

1 

8736 

17762 

98 

244 

712 

- 

1 

35 

47 

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2 

~ 

900? 

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7673 

13344 

72 

615 

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48 

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5 

7505 

18108 

1500 

685 

2634 

2 

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39 

54 

4 

7 

6346 

8827 

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479 

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33 

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31 

1590 

2534? 

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250? 

220 

1 

1 

28? 

30 

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5 

1047 

1989? 

~ 

304? 

211 

- 

- 

- 

5 

— ? 

12 

35196 

46368 

796 

1393 

1610 

2 

2 

47 

55 

6 

7 

6739 

9210 

275 

236 

270 

1 

1 

28 

21 

4 

2 

2802 

4969 

70 

245 

113 

- 

- 

4 

8 

2 

5 

2271 

2862 

150 

68 

90 

1 

- 

6 

- 

1 

3 

1807 

2737 

- 

160 

109 

1 

1 

5 

5 

3 

6 

854 

- 

93 

- 

150 

- 

- 

- 

6 

- 

8 

— 

221927 

37130? 

5443? 

16355? 

22798? 

24 

33 

706 

427' 

187? 

201? 

the,.  £'3,^0  "art  <”  avm  l0*‘3t  “'«tfi»able  figure..  A  -  ?  indicate.  that  figures  are  miming.  A  .lush  (-)  mean,  that 

1  This  docs  not  include  108  seminaries  of  Religious  Orders. 


tltSre  """ba”"'  r°'  192>  are  practically  unobtainable. 

Thtatistics  of  1908  and  1921  respectively  are  riot  available  for  comi 


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APPENDIX 


Statistics  of  Non-Catholic  Activities  in  India,  Burma  and 

Ceylon  * 

I.  Christian  Population: 

Communicants  .  590,679 

Other  Baptized  Christians  .  486,977 

Others  under  Christian  instruction  .  420,256 


Total  .  1,497,912 

II.  Organized  Churches  .  7,706 

Other  places  having  regular  worship .  6,368 


Total  .  14,074 

III.  Foreign  Staff: 

Ordained  men  .  1,690 

Unordained  men .  428 


Total  .  2,118 

IV.  Native  Staff: 

Ordained  men .  2,355 

Unordained  men  .  23,589 


Total  .  25,944 

V.  Schools : 

Kindergarten  .  60 

Elementary  . 13,046 

Secondary  .  820 

Theological  and  Bible .  79 

Industrial .  97 

Normal  .  76 

Medical  .  7 


Total  .  14,185 

*  Statistics  from  the  World  Statistics  of  Christian  Missions,  1916, 
by  courtesy  of  Foreign  Missions  Conference  of  North  America,  New 
York  City. 


295 


296  INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 

VI.  Pupils  in  the  schools .  644,051 

VII.  Colleges  and  Universities .  34 

VIII.  Students  .  9,160 

IX.  Orphanages  .  121 

X.  Hospitals  .  187 

XI.  Dispensaries  .  385 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 
General  and  Descriptive 
English 

Beach,  Harlan  Page,  India  and  Christian  Opportunity ,  Hew 
York,  1904. 

Carroll,  Rev.  Fr.  Joseph,  O.S.F.C.,  Our  Missionary  Life  in 
India,  Allahabad,  1917. 

Dubois,  Abbe,  Hindu  Manners,  Customs  and  Ceremonies,  2 
vols.,  Oxford,  1897. 

Forty-Second  Report  of  the  Cambridge  Committee  for  the  Year 
1919,  Indian  Ed.,  St.  Albans,  1920. 

Houpert,  J.  C.,  S.J.,  The  Madura  Mission  Manual,  Trichin- 
opoly,  1916. 

Indian  Education  in  1918-1919,  Bureau  of  Education,  India, 
Calcutta,  1920. 

Lamont,  Margaret,  M.D.,  Indian  Catholic  Missions  and  Women 
Doctors,  Trichinopoly,  1919. 

-  Twenty  Years  Medical  Work  in  Mission  Countries, 

Shanghai,  1918. 

Leo,  Er.,  O.M.Cap.,  The  Capuchin  Mission  in  the  Punjab,  Man¬ 
galore,  1910. 

Manna,  Rev.  Paolo,  The  Conversion  of  the  Pagan  World . 
Translated  from  the  Italian  by  Rev.  Jos.  F.  McGlinchey, 
D.D.,  Boston,  1921. 

Marshall,  T.  W.  M.,  Christian  Missions,  2  vols..  New  York, 
1880. 

Prasad,  Harnaryan,  B.A.,  The  Encyclopaedic  Indian  Directory, 
Lahore,  Allahabad,  1918. 

Schwager,  Rev.  Frederich,  S.V.D.,  The  Most  Vital  Mission 
Problem.  Translated  from  the  German  by  Rev.  Agatho 
Rolf,  O.M.Cap.,  Techny,  1915. 

Silva,  J.  A.  E.  de,  The  Catholic  Church  in  India,  Bombay,  1885. 

Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith. 

- Native  Clergy  for  Mission  Countries,  New  York,  1917. 

-  The  Catechist  in  Mission  Countries,  New  York,  1919. 

Spieler,  Rev.  Jos.,  P.S.M.,  Lights  and  Shadows.  Translated 
from  the  German  by  C.  Lawrence,  O.M.Cap.,  Techny,  1916. 

297 


298 


INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 


Thurston,  Edgar,  and  Rangachari,  R.,  Castes  and  Tribes  of 
Southern  India,  7  vols.,  Madras,  1909. 

German 

Arens,  Bernard,  S.J.,  Handbuch  der  katholischen  Missionen , 
Freiburg,  1920. 

Bericht  ueber  die  N  ordtirolische  Kapuziner-Mission  von  Bet - 
tiah  und  Nepal,  18  vols.,  Innsbruck,  1896-1913. 

Dahlmann,  Jos.,  S.J.,  Indische  Fahrten,  2  vols.,  Freiburg, 
1908. 

Krose,  H.  A.,  S.J.,  Kirchliches  Handbuch,  Freiburg,  1908. 

Noti,  Sev.,  S.J.,  Aus  Indien — Beisebriefe  eines  Missionars, 
Einsiedeln,  1908. 

Yaeth,  Alphons,  S.J.,  Die  Protestantischen  Missionsbestre- 
bungen  der  Gegenwart  (in  Stimmen  aus  Maria-Laach, 
Freiburg,  Vol.  79,  1910,  pp.  253-267). 

French 

Besse,  Leon,  S.J.,  La  Mission  du  Madure,  Trichinopoly,  1914. 

Courtenay,  P.,  Le  Christianisme  an  Ceylon,  Paris,  1900. 

History  and  Biography 

English 

Campbell,  Thomas  J.,  S.J.,  The  Jesuits,  1531+-1921,  New  York, 
1921. 

Cottineau,  Denis  L.,  History  of  Goa,  Bombay,  1910.  (First 
published  1827.) 

Felix,  Finck,  O.M.Cap.  (Lahore),  Essays  on  the  Capuchin 
Missions  in  India.  (Published  in  Franciscan  Annals  of 
India,  Agra,  1910-1912.) 

-  Mughal  Farmans,  Parwanahs  and  Sanade  Issued  in 

Favor  of  the  Jesuit  Missionaries.  (Published  in  the  Jour¬ 
nal  of  the  Punjab  Historical  Society,  Yol.  Y,  No.  1,  Cal¬ 
cutta,  1916.) 

— -  On  the  Persian  Farmans  Granted  to  the  Jesuits  by  the 

Moghul  Emperors,  and  Tibetan  and  Newari  Farmans 
Granted  to  the  Capuchin  Missionaries  in  Tibet  and  Nepal. 
(From  The  Journal  and  Proceedings,  Asiatic  Society  of 
Bengal,  New  Series,  Yol.  YIII,  No.  9,  1912.) 

History  of  the  Telugu  Christians  by  a  Father  of  the  Mill  Hill 
Society,  Trichinopoly,  1910. 

Hosten,  H.,  S.J.,  Padre  Marco  della  Tomba  and  the  Asoka 
Pillars  near  Bettiah.  (From  the  Journal  and  Proceedings, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  299 

Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal ,  New  Series,  Yol.  VIII,  No.  3, 
1912.) 

Kelly,  W.  T.,  Life  of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  St.  Louis,  1918. 
Luce,  Rev.,  An  Account  of  Catholic  Missions  of  Southern 
Burma ,  London,  1909. 

Marshmann  and  Ward,  Life  and  Times  of  Carey,  London,  1859. 
Medlycott,  India  and  the  Apostle  St.  Thomas,  London,  1905. 
Sa,  Rev.  M.,  D’,  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  India, 
Bombay,  1910. 

Sandberg,  G.,  Exploration  of  Tibet,  London,  1904. 

Zaleski,  L.  M.,  St.  Francis  Xavier,  Missionary,  1912. 

-  The  Apostle  of  Ceylon,  Father  Joseph  Vaz,  1651-1711, 

1912. 

— -  The  Missionaries  of  To-day,  a  Sequel  to  St.  Francis 

Xavier,  Missionary,  1912. 


German 

Arens,  Bernard,  S.J.,  Das  katholische  Zeitungswesen  in  Osta- 
sien  und  Ozeanien,  Aachen,  1919. 

Baumgartner,  Alexander,  S.J.,  Geschichte  der  Weltliteratur, 
Freiburg,  1897-1912. 

Becker,  P.  S.,  D.S.,  Aertzliche  Fuersorge  in  den  Missions- 
laendern,  Aachen,  1921. 

Dahlmann,  Jos.,  S.J.,  Thomaslegende,  Freiburg,  1912. 

Hahn,  Dr.  Heinrich,  Geschichte  der  katholischen  Missionen, 
5  vols.,  Koeln,  1858. 

Hardy,  Edmund,  Koenig  Asoka,  Mainz,  1902. 

Imhof,  Adrian,  und  Jann,  Adelhelm,  O.M.Cap.,  Anastasius 
Hartmann,  Luzern,  1903. 

Jann,  Adelhelm,  O.M.Cap.,  Die  katholischen  Missionen  in 
Indien,  China  und  Japan  vom  15.  bis  18.  Jahrhundert, 
Paderbom,  1915. 

Kunstmann,  Die  Missionen  in  Indien  und  China.  (Published 
in  the  Historisch-P  olitische  Blaetter,  Muenchen,  1856  and 
1859.) 

-  Kenntnisse  Indiens  im  Fuenfzehnten  Jahrhundert 

[Voyages  of  Conti].  (Published  in  Historisch-P  olitische 
Blaetter,  Muenchen,  1863.) 

Lemmens,  L.,  O.F.M.,  Die  Heidenmissionen  des  Spaetmittel- 
alters,  Muenster,  1919. 

Muellbauer,  J.,  Geschichte  der  katholischen  Mission  in  Ost- 
indien,  Freiburg,  1852. 

Noti,  Sev.,  S.J.,  Das  Fuerstentum  Sardhana,  Freiburg,  1906. 


300  INDIA  AND  ITS  MISSIONS 

Sch wager,  Friedrich,  S.V.D.,  Die  hatholische  Heidenmission 
der  Gegenwart,  Yol.  IY,  Steyl,  1909. 

Steidl,  P.  Adolf,  Ord.Cap.,  Die  Missionen  der  Kapuziner  in 
der  Gegenwart,  Meran,  1890. 

Wittman,  Dr.  Patricius,  Die  Herlichheiten  der  Eirche,  Augs¬ 
burg,  1841. 

Latin 

Bullarium  Cappuccinorum,  Roma,  Yols.  7  and  9,  Romas,  1752, 
et  Oeniponte,  1884. 

Collectanea  8.  Congregationis  De  Propaganda  Fide,  Romae,  1893. 

Holzapfel,  P.  Dr.  H.,  Historia  Ordinis  Minorum,  Freiburg, 
1909. 

Italian 

Cesinale,  Rocco  da,  O.M.Cap.,  Storia  delle  Missioni  del  Cap- 
puccini,  Yol.  Ill,  Roma,  1873. 

Lodovico  da  Livorno,  O.M.Cap.,  Giovanna  Sumroo,  Principessa 
di  8ardhana  e  le  sue  Instituzione,  Milano,  1892. 

French 

Launay,  Adrien,  Eistoire  des  Missions  de  VInde,  4  vols.,  Paris, 
1898. 

Literature  and  Science 

English 

Monroe,  Paul,  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  5  vols.,  New  York, 
1911-1913. 

German 

Bischoffshausen,  Sigismund,  Freiherrn  von,  Das  hoehere  hath - 
olische  Unterrichtswesen  in  Indien  und  die  Behehrung  der 
Brahmahnen ,  Freiburg,  1895. 

Dahlmann,  Jos.,  S.J.,  Sprachhunde  und  Missionen,  Freiburg, 
1891. 

Woerrmann,  Geschichte  der  Kunst,  Yol.  I,  Leipzig,  1905. 

Periodicals 

English 

America,  Yol.  XX YI,  New  York,  1921,  pp.  33-35  and  57-58, 
Yol.  XIX,  1918,  pp.  448-449,  Yol.  XXI,  1919,  pp.  540-542 
and  613-615. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


301 


Catholic  Herald  of  India,  Calcutta. 

Catholic  Missions,  New  York. 

Catholicus,  Cawnpore,  India. 

Franciscan  Annals,  Sussex,  England. 

Franciscan  Annals  of  India,  Agra,  India. 

The  Bengalese,  Vol.  I,  1919  to  date,  Washington,  D.  C. 

The  Examiner,  Bombay,  India. 

The  Simla  Times,  Simla,  India. 

German 

Die  hatholischen  Missionen ,  Freiburg. 

St.  Fidelis  Gloecklein,  Ingenbohl,  Yol.  VII,  1918-1919;  Yol. 
VIII,  1919-1920;  Yol.  IX,  1920-1921. 

Latin 

Analecta  Ordinis  Minorum  Cappuccinorum,  Romse,  1884  to  date. 

Italian 

II  Massaja,  Roma,  1914  to  date. 


\ 


\ 


INDEX 


A 

Abdias  of  Babylon,  81 
Aborigines,  15,  29 
Academies,  238 
Achin,  107 
Adeikalaburam,  253 
Adelkan,  105 
Adigranth,  35 
Aelen,  Bishop  J.,  158 
Afghanistan,  24 
Agasshi,  88 
Agliardi,  Mgr.,  142 
Agra,  93,  122,  131,  149-153 
Agriculture,  7,  11,  12,  256 
Ahmadabad,  101,  157 
Ahmadnagar,  157 

Concentration  Camp,  170,  174 
Aiwulli  Temple,  77 
Aix-la-Chapelle, 

Treaty  of,  22 
Ajmere  Mission,  151,  152 
Akbar  the  Great,  19,  92,  93 
Alambarve,  104 
Albert,  Fr.,  O.F.M.,  86 
Albuquerque,  20 

Albuquerque,  Bishop,  O.F.M.,  88, 

89 

Alexander  de  Campo,  Bishop, 

101,  102 

Alexander  the  Great,  16,  68 
Alexander  IV.,  Pope,  84 
Allahabad,  150 
Alvares,  Fr.,  103 
Alvarez,  Henry,  O.F.M.,  87 
Alvarez,  Bishop,  165 
Amador,  Fr.,  O.F.M.,  57 
Ambalacatty,  289 
Ambrose,  Fr.,  O.M.Cap.,  106 
American  missionaries,  181,  182 
Amptya  Seminary,  165 
Amritzar,  35 

303 


Amusements,  native,  44 
Anand,  157 

Anderson,  Fr.,  S.J.,  181 
Angediva,-  87 

Anglican  Church  Miss.  Society, 
187 

Anglicans,  187,  193,  197 

Animals,  9,  10,  178 

Animal  Worship,  31,  50,  51 

Animism,  29 

Annradhapura,  165 

Anthony  of  Padrona,  O.F.M.,  90 

Antonio  da  Porta,  O.F.M.,  88 

Aquiviva,  Rudolph,  S.J.,  92 

Arakan,  117 

Aranyakas,  70 

Architecture,  43,  75-78 

Arcot,  22 

Area  of  India,  4 

Arjan,  35 

Arjuna,  71 

Armageddon,  24 

A.R.M.  Assoc’n,  249 

Art,  74-78 

Artaxerxes  Memnon,  68 
Aryans,  13,  29 
Asceticism,  31-37,  52 
Asoka,  King,  17,  32,  75 
Assam  missions,  173,  176 
Asylums,  166,  190,  249 
Atharva-Veda,  69,  70 
Augustine,  Chas.,  O.S.B.,  283 
Augustinians,  87,  103,  116,  138 
Aurangabad,  159 
Aurangzeb,  20,  22 
Austrian  missionaries,  169,  172 
Ava,  117,  141 

B 

Baber,  19 
Bactria,  16 
Badami,  78 


304 


INDEX 


Badgao,  112 
Badhoughers,  94 
Baker-ganji  Cyclone,  8 
Balthasar  da  Costa,  S.J.,  100 
Baluchistan,  24 
Bandra,  59,  157 
Bandurah,  204 
Bangalore,  246 
Banha  Manuel,  O.F.M.,  57 
Bankapur,  181 
Bannchapra,  153 
Baptist  missions,  186-188 
Barnabites,  117,  141 
Baroda,  27 

Maharajah  of,  278 
Barokia,  85 

Bartoldus,  Fr.,  S.J.,  118,  120 
Barway,  154 

Basle  Mission  Society,  60 
Bassein,  93 

Battikaloa,  King  of,  90 
Beasts,  wild,  9,  178 
Becker,  Bev.  Christopher,  173, 
176 

Behar,  112,  123 
Bejapur,  102 
Belgaum,  172 
Beligatti,  Fr.,  O.F.M.,  58 
Bellarmine,  Cardinal,  99 
Bellary,  158 
Benares : 

Buddhism,  31 
Holy  City,  51 
Monkey  Temple,  50 
Sanskrit  College,  60 
Benedict  XIII.,  Pope,  121 
Benedict  XIV.,  Pope,  121,  278 
Benedict  XV.,  Pope,  180,  204,  283 
Benedictines,  130,  141,  144 
Bengal,  95,  103,  138 
Bengali,  51,  206 
Bentinck,  Lord  William,  61 
Berar,  20 

Bernardino,  Mgr.,  133 
Bernini,  Jos.,  O.M.Cap.,  58,  115 
Beschi,  Jos.,  S.J.,  57,  119 
Bettachini,  Fr.,  140 
Bettiah  missions,  114,  123,  152, 
181 

in  W.  War,  178 
Bettiah,  King  of,  58 


Bhagnagar,  107 

Bhar,  138 

Bharata,  7 1 

Bhatgaon,  114 

Bhils,  29,  40,  151,  157 

Bhoborbara,  205 

Bhutan,  27,  138 

Bible-women,  189,  191,  195 

Biondi,  Mgr.,  190 

Binns,  Harold,  73 

Birds,  10 

Bisnagar,  95 

Bizapore,  105 

Bois,  M.  de  Chateau  des,  109 
Bombay : 

Ecc.  Province,  156-158 
missions,  102,  116,  132,  139 
Portuguese  Schism,  128 
war  conditions,  170,  175,  177 
Bombay  Eas\t  Indian,  The,  242 
Bombay  Examiner ,  The,  128,  242 
Bonaventure,  Fr.,  O.C.D.,  179 
Bonnand,  Mgr.,  135 
Borghi,  Mgr.,  132 
Bouchet,  Fr.,  S.J.,  118,  120 
Boundaries  of  India,  3 
Brahamanas ,  70 
Brahma,  31,  33 
Brahmanism,  30,  54,  55,  69 
Brahmans,  15 
art,  75,  77 

character,  234,  267-269 
conversion,  270 
dress,  40-43 
education,  54-55 
in  power,  269 
literature,  69-78 
marriage,  45 
vide  caste 
Brahmaputra,  6 
Brahma  Samaj,  39,  67 
British  Government: 
education,  61-67 
expels  missionaries,  169-175 
Peace  Conference,  180 
religion,  28,  95,  280,  285 
British  Rule: 

effects,  27,  269,  285 
methods,  23-27,  49 
occupation,  22-25 
possessions,  26,  27 


INDEX 


305 


British  Foreign  Bible  Society, 
191 

Britto,  Bishop  Stephen,  101 
Britto,  Fr.  John  de,  100 
Brotherhoods,  145,  158 
Buddha,  16,  31-33 
Buddhism,  31-33 
Buddhistic  art,  74-77 
Burma,  117,  141,  166 


C 

Cabral,  Anton,  92 
Cabral,  Peter,  87 
Cadapamkam,  104 
Cakuntala,  73 
Cakyas,  31 
Calcutta:  13,  60,  138 
Ecc.  Province,  153-156 
W.  War,  176 
Calmette,  Fr.,  S.J.,  58 
Calvinists,  187 
Cambay,  85 

Campo,  Alexander  de,  101 
Campo,  Thomas  de,  101 
Canara,  102 
Capuchins : 

Agra,  149-153 
Allahabad,  150,  151 
Bettiah,  114,  123,  131,  152 
Bombay,  132 
Hindostan,  122 
Lhasa,  112-114 
linguists,  58 
Madras,  107-110 
Malabar  Bite  Dispute,  119- 
122 

Patna,  112-115 
Pondicherry,  104 
Punjab,  131 
Surat,  105 

Tibet  &  Nepal,  112-114 
varia,  111,  144 
World  War,  174,  178 
Carampuly,  104 
Carew,  Bishop  Patrick,  135 
Carey,  William,  186 
Carli,  Bishop,  132 
Carmelites:  \ 

Great  Mogul,  102,  111,  115 


Carmelites — continued 

other  missions,  87,  101,  102, 
122 

Quilon,  133 

Thomas  Christians,  Goa  and 
Bombay,  101,  102,  116, 
133  139 

Verapoly,  116,  133,  139,  160 
World  War,  179 
Carroll,  Jos.,  O.M.Cap.,  214,  228, 
235,  241 

Carvalho,  Bishop,  127 
Carvalho,  Jos.,  S.J.,  118 
Cassam-Chain,  103 
Caste: 

attitude  of  Church,  278 
cause,  48,  275 
expulsion  from,  276,  277 
features,  16,  30,  48,  260,  274-77 
hindrance  to  education,  234, 
235 

hindrance  to  native  clergy,  136 
hindrance  to  religion,  95,  234 
recent  developments,  277 
rejected  by  Buddha,  32 
remedies,  279 

Castro,  Fr.  Matthew  de,  102 
Catalani,  Jordan,  O.P.,  84,  85 
Catechists:  224-233 
indispensable,  224-227,  233 
training,  231,  232 
wages,  231 
women,  230 
work,  226-228 

Catholic  Herald  of  India ,  242 
Catholic  Leader ,  242 
Catholicus ,  242 

Caumont,  Fortunatus,  O.M.Cap., 
152 

Central  Provinces,  23 
Cereals,  12 
Cettiatti,  116 
Ceylon : 

Dutch  persecution,  116 
Ecc.  Province,  164 
missions,  90,  140 
Chaknee,  131 
Clialukya  Dynasty,  18 
Champattia,  153 
Chandnernagore,  112,  138 
Chandragupta,  17 


306 


INDEX 


Changanacherry,  161 
Charity,  Catholic:  244-255 
A.R.M.  Assoc’n,  249 
asylums,  249 
dispensaries,  250 
hospitals,  245-248 
institutions,  147,  244 
medical  missions,  249 
orphanages,  etc.,  251,  252 
social  work,,  253,  254 
visiting  sick,  250 
women  doctors,  249 
Charity,  Protestant,  vide  Protes¬ 
tant 

Character,  native,  234,  258-268, 
285 

Charles  II.  of  England,  22 
Chelmsford,  Lord,  24 
Cherrapunji,  6 
Chota  Nagpur,  138,  154 
Christians,  St.  Thomas,  82,  101 
Church  buildings,  147,  208 
Churee,  114 
Clement  X.,  Pope,  125 

XI. ,  112,  120 

XII. ,  121 
XIV.,  122 

Clergy,  native,  282-291 
Climate,  6,  204 
Clothing,  40-43 
Cochin,  139,  149 
Coeurdoux,  Fr.,  S.J.,  58 
Coimbatore,  136 
Cold,  6 

Colgan,  Mgr.,  158 
Colleges,  vide  education 
Colombo  ( Coromandel ) ,  85 
Colombo  (Ceylon),  141 
Colonists,  European,  20-23 
Commerce,  11-13 
Comorin,  85 
Company  of  India,  104 
Congregationalists,  188 
Converts,  208,  209,  221,  262 
Cooch,  138 

Cooperative  Societies,  254 
Coromandel  Coast,  85 
Cornish,  Judge,  154 
Cosmas,  Fr.,  O.M.Cap.,  205 
Costa,  Balthasar  de,  S.J.,  100 
Cotton,  12 


Couloan,  101 
Courts,  49 
Courtship,  45 
Coutinho,  Capt.,  245 
Covilham,  Pedro,  87 
Cozzaniga,  Fr.,  156 
Cranganore,  88 
Cremation,  47 
Cuddalore,  246 
Curzon,  Lord,  63 
Custodius  de  Pincho,  102 
Customs,  Indian: 

Aryan,  29 
Catholic,  216-218 
Hindu,  40-53 
Cyclones,  8,  256 
Cyrus  of  Persia,  16 


D 

Dacca,  155,  173,  1S1 
Dagobas,  76 
Daily  News,  The,  242 
Dailies  (Cath.),  242 
Dalhousie,  Lord,  23 
Daman,  93 
Damaun,  20,  149 
Damayanti,  73 
Dara,  101 
Darbhangar,  153 
Darius,  16 
Dasaratha,  72 
Delhi,  19,  24,  25 
Demange,  Bishop,  P.F.M.,  225 
Denmark,  21 
De  Nobili,  vide  Nobili 
Desideri,  Fr.,  S.J.,  113 
Dhritarashtra,  71 
Diego  da  Borba,  88,  289 
Difficulties,  missionary: 
caste,  95,  275 
climate,  204 

divided  Christianity,  280 
European  example,  89,  96,  266 
insincere  converts,  221,  262 
isolation  of  women,  248,  273 
language,  206 

native  character,  234,  258-268, 
285 

persecutions  q.v. 


INDEX 


30? 


Difficulties,  missionary  —  contin¬ 
ued 
politics: 

British,  28,  95,  169,  280,  285 
Dutch,  95,  101,  105,  116 
French,  111,  123 
Portuguese,  108,  116,  124- 
129 

schisms  q.v. 

Dinajour,  138 
Disease,  8,  179 
Dispensaries,  250 
Diu,  20,  85 

Doctors  and  missions,  179,  189, 
193-196,  246-249 
Doctors,  women,  189,  249 
Dominic,  Fr.,  O.P.,  87 
Dominicans,  84-87,  89,  116 
Dravidians,  29 
Drawida,  61 
Dress,  40-43 
Drog-ne,  113 
Dubois,  Abbe,  40 
Duff,  60 
Dupleix,  21 
Durga  Khond,  50 
Duryodhana,  71 
Dutch : 

colonists,  20 
opposition,  95,  101,  105 
persecution,  116 
sympathy,  180 
Dwellings,  43 


E 

Earthquakes,  8 
Eastern  Mail,  The,  182,  243 
East  India  Co.,  22-23,  61 
Education  in  general: 
caste  hindrance,  54,  234 
curriculum,  65,  237 
East  India  Co.,  61 
Great  Britain,  27,  62-68 
language,  56-59,  61-62 
pagan  scholars,  235,  240,  241 
statistics,  65 
universities,  239 

Education,  Catholic,  56-59,  146, 
236-241,  271 


Education,  Catholic — continued 
early  institutions,  88,  90,  94, 
103,  110,  118 
Education,  non-Catholic : 

Hindu,  55,  60 
Mohammedan,  55,  60 
Protestant,  59,  188 
Elefanta,  78 
Eline,  Fr.,  S.J.,  181 
Ellora,  78 

Elphinstone,  Mountstuart,  61 
England,  vide  British 
Ephrem  of  Nevers,  O.M.Cap.,  107- 
110 

Episcopalians,  187,  193,  197 
Ernakulam,  161 
Etiquette,  45 
Eugene  IV.,  Pope,  86 
Euphrates,  18 
Eusebius,  83 
Everest,  Mt.,  5 
Examiner,  The,  128,  242 
Exports,  12 

F 

Factories,  12 

Famine,  8,  27,  179,  214,  257 
Faridur,  138 
Fauna,  9 

Fernandes,  Gonsalvo,  S.J.,  98 
Fialla,  John,  O.F.M.,  90 
Finck,  Felix,  O.M.Cap.,  178,  222 
Fishes,  10 
Floods,  257 
Forests,  9 
Fourcade,  Fr.,  215 
Franciscans  (O.F.M.)  : 
early  missions,  84-87 
later  missions,  87-90,  116 
Lhasa,  86 
linguists,  56 
French : 

colonists,  21 
India  Co.,  21 
lose  India,  22 
revolution,  123 
Fruits,  9,  11,  12 
Frumentius,  Bishop,  83 
Funchal,  89 


308 


INDEX 


Funerals,  47  Gurus,  35,  37 

Furniture,  43  Gwalior,  27,  95 


G 

Galle,  164 
Games,  native,  44 
Ganesa,  37 
Ganges,  6 

Sacred  Biver,  38,  47,  50 
Garrelon,  Bishop,  133 
Garzia,  Bishop,  101 
Gautama,  vide  Buddha 
George,  Archdeacon,  101 
German : 

colonists,  21 
missionaries,  169-176 
Ghandi,  Mahatma,  25 
Ghats,  5,  9 
Ghor  Dynasty,  19 
Ghorgargaon,  159 
Ghurkas,  114 
Gingi,  94 

Giorgi,  Augustine,  59 
Goa : 

clergy,  124-129,  140 
Diocese,  89’,  124,  125,  140 
Ecc.  Province,  148 
inquisition,  108 
schism,  127-129 
Goethals,  Archbishop,  155 
Golconda : 

exile  ship,  174 
King  of,  109 
missions,  102,  103,  107 
Gonds,  29,  40 
Gonsalvez,  Pedro,  89 
Goodier,  Alban,  177 
Government,  vide  British 
Govind  Sing,  35 
Graca,  Leonard  da,  103 
Grain,  12 

Great  Britain,  vide  British 
Great  Mogul,  19,  100 

missions,  92,  100,  111,  116 
Gregory  XV.,  Pope,  99 
XVI.,  126 

Gujarat,  42,  93,  156 
Gundafor,  King,  82 
Gupta,  18 


H 

Haflong,  176 
Hanxleden,  Fr.,  S.J.,  58 
Harsha,  King,  18 
Hartmann,  Anastasius,  O.M.Cap., 
58,  128,  129,  140,  290 
Hastings,  Warren,  23,  60 

TT  pq  f 

Heggelin,  Fr.,  S.J.,  156 
Henriquez,  Henrico,  S.J.,  57,  92, 
245 

Hierarchy,  Catholic,  143,  167 

Himalayas,  3,  4 

Hindi,  206 

Hindostan,  122 

Hindu : 

dress,  40-43 
education,  55 
literature,  69-74 
vide  Brahman 
Hinduism,  36-40,  264-267 
Hindu  Kush,  4,  15 
Hindustani,  58,  207 
History,  Indian: 
early,  14-18 
Mohammedan,  18-20 
Europeans,  20-29 
Holland,  vide  Dutch 
Holy  Cross  Fathers,  144,  155, 
182 

Home  Buie,  25,  285 
Flomes,  43 
Hood,  Fr.,  204 
Hospitals : 

Catholic,  244-248 
Protestant,  189,  193-196 
Hosten,  Fr.,  S.J.,  82 
Houpert,  Fr.,  S.J.,  48,  275 
Hsuan  Tsang,  17 
Hugli,  103 

Hull,  Fr.,  S.J.,  172,  235,  280 
Pluns,  White,  18 
Hunter,  W.  W.,  67 
Hurth,  Bishop,  155 
Hyderabad,  135,  159 
Hyder  Ali,  23 


INDEX 


309 


Hymns,  Vedic,  15,  29  69-71 
Hyphasis,  16 

I 

Iamgain,  154 
Ice,  7 

Idolatry,  29,  33,  36-38,  50,  263 

Ignorance,  native,  67,  257,  273 

Immorality,  37,  219 

Indian  C.  Truth  Society,  182,  243 

Indian  Government,  169 

Indian  States,  27 

Indigo,  12 

Indus,  5,  15 

Industries,  11-12 

Innocent  IV.,  Pope,  84 

Inquisition,  Portuguese,  108 

Insects,  10 

Insurrections,  23 

Invasions,  vide  History 

Irish  Secular  Priests,  135,  139 

Irrigation,  7 

Ives,  Fr.,  O.M.Cap.,  107 

Iyer,  Sir  Sheshadri,  247 


J 

Jacobabad,  7 

Jaffna  Catholic  Guardian,  242 

Jaffna,  116,  140,  164 

Jaffnapatam,  101 

Jahanara,  100 

Jahangir,  100 

Jainism,  33 

Jaipur,  151 

James,  Fr.,  O.M.Cap.,  105 
Jaxartes  River,  15 
Jelicote,  150 
Jenn,  Fr.,  165 
Jesuits : 

Akbar’s  Court,  92 
Bengal,  138 
Bombay,  132,  156 
Ceylon,  116 
early  missions,  90-101 
education,  59,  165 
Galle,  164 
Goa,  91 

linguists,  57,  58 
Madura,  118,  134 


J  esuits — continued 

Malabar  Rite  Dispute,  119-122 
Mangalore,  139 

pariahs  and  Brahmans,  96-100 

Patna,  153 

Poona,  133 

Sikhs,  156 

suppression,  121 

Surat,  105 

Thomas  Christians,  101 
Trincomalie,  166 
World  War,  169-177,  181 
John  of  Corvino,  O.F.M.,  84 
John,  King  of  Portugal,  91 
John  of  Marignola,  86 
John  the  Persian,  83 
John  of  Villa-Comte,  90 
Joseph,  Fr.,  O.C.D.,  101 
Joseph,  Fr.,  O.M.Cap.,  205 
Joseph  of  Rovato,  O.M.Cap.,  115 
Joseph  du  Tremblay,  O.M.Cap., 
104 

Joseph  de  Torres,  127 
Jordan  Catalani,  O.P.,  85 
Juamschikai,  271 
Juergens,  Herman,  S.J.,  170,  177, 
239 

Joulain,  Mgr.,  165 
K 

Kabul,  16 
Kafristan,  162 
Kailasa  Temple,  78 
Kali,  37 

Kalidasa,  72,  73 
Kali  Dewi,  263 
Kanara,  139 
Kanari,  57 
Kandy: 

King  of,  90 
missions,  141,  165 
Kaniska,  King,  18 
Karachi,  13 
Karakoran,  4 
Karen  Tribes,  141 
Kama,  71 
Karwar,  87 
Kashmir,  27,  93,  162 
Kathkaris,  157 
Kavyas,  73 


310 


INDEX 


Kenealy,  Anselm,  O.M.Cap.,  162, 
172 

Kelley,  Mgr.,  180 
Kelly,  Fr.,  181 
Khandala,  157,  173 
Khasi  Hills,  6 
Khatmandu,  113 
Khildji  Dynasty,  19 
Khwandwa,  160 
Knockert,  Fr.,  S.J.,  222 
Kolar  Fields,  11 
Kols,  154 
Konkani,  57 
Koran,  34,  56 
Kottayam,  161 
Krishna,  33 
Krishnagar,  156,  205 
Kshatriya,  48,  71 
Ktesias,  68 
Kumarasambhava,  73 
Kumbakonam,  135,  163 
Kunbis,  157 
Kushan  Dynasty,  18 
Kutb-ud-in,  19 
Kutch,  34 

L 

Lacombe,  Fr.,  S.J.,  243 
Lahore,  82,  93 

Lamont,  Dr.  Margaret,  189,  193, 
195,  248 

Languages,  57-59,  206 
Latonah,  153 
Lavigne,  Chas.,  S.J.,  160 
Lawrence,  Fr.,  O.M.Cap.,  105 
Laynez,  Francis,  S.J.,  118 
Legrand,  Bishop,  224 
Leigh,  Fr.,  S.J.,  243 
Leitan,  Emmanuel,  S.J.,  98 
Leo  XIII.,  Pope,  130,  142,  165, 
283 

Leusch,  Mother  Mary,  247 
Lhasa,  86,  112,  113 
Lievens,  Constantine,  S.J.,  154 
Linguists,  missionary,  56-59 
Literature,  Indian : 

Catholic,  56-59,  147,  242 
Prakrit,  69,  72-74 
Sanskrit,  69-72 
Vedic,  15,  29,  69,  70 


Little  Mount,  81 
Lohdi  Dynasty,  19 
Louage,  Bishop,  155 
Lucknow,  131 
Ludhiana,  190 
Lutherans,  59,  186 
Lyons,  Pius,  O.M.Cap.,  179 


M 

Macaulay,  Lord,  62 
Macdonell,  Prof.,  69 
Madras,  11,  12,  81,  134 

Ecc.  Province,  158 
Madura,  96,  118,  134 
Magadha,  17,  76 
Mahabharata,  15,  71,  72 
Maharata  Confederacy,  23 
Mahavellipur,  78 
Mahe,  138 
Mahers,  157 
Mahmud  of  Ghazbi,  19 
Makil,  Bishop,  161 
Malabar : 

Rite  Dispute,  119-122 

Thomas  Christians,  82,  101, 
104 

Malacca,  163,  164 
Malaria,  8 

Malavikagnimitra,  73 
Malayalim,  27 
Mameluke  Dynasty,  19 
Manaar,  94 
Manapar,  119 
Manco,  Fr.,  103 
Mandalay,  8 
Mangalore,  133,  139 
Mangs,  157 
Manjacupum,  104 
Mantotte,  140 
Manufactures,  12 
Marathanus,  Bishop,  165 
Marathi,  51 
Mar  cane,  104 
Marian  Congress,  183 
Mariapur,  151 
Markham,  Clements,  60 
Marriages,  native,  45-47 
Mar  Rocco,  134 
Marshman,  60 


INDEX 


311 


Martin,  Fr.,  S.J.,  157 
Martyrs,  85,  87,  88,  100,  123 
Marwar,  101 

Mary  of  Orleans,  O.M.Cap.,  106 
Mary,  Sister,  O.C.D.,  133 
Mathews,  Don,  105 
Matta,  Bishop,  129 
Matthew  de  Castro,  102 
Maurya  Dynasty,  17 
Mazda,  36 
Mazda  ism,  36 
Meals,  44 
Mecca,  18,  34 
Medical  missions,  180 
Catholic,  244-251 
Protestant,  189,  195 
Medina,  34 

Medlycott,  Bishop,  160 
Megapatam,  94 
Megasthenes,  68 
Meyhclata,  73 
Melizan,  Archbishop,  164 
Melius,  Bishop,  134 
Memnon,  Artaxerxes,  68 
Meneges,  Bishop,  103 
Methodists,  166,  178,  188 
Meuleman,  Bishop,  173,  176,  181 
Meyer,  Sir  William,  25 
Micara,  Ludovic,  O.M.Cap.,  123 
Middleton,  Thomas,  187 
Milan  Foreign  Mission  Society, 
130,  139,  141 
Milet,  Fr.,  S.J.,  181 
Military  Order  of  Christ,  88 
Mill  Hill  Fathers,  144,  162 
Minerals,  11 
Misbai,  King,  81 
Missionaries,  Catholic: 
increase,  144,  291 
modern,  87-186,  203 
pioneer,  81-87 
work,  208-222 
World  War,  169 

Missionaries,  Protestant,  143-167 
vide  Protestant 
Missions,  Catholic: 
difficulties  q.v. 
progress,  142-167 
vide  missionaries,  etc. 
Missions,  Protestant: 
vide  Protestant 


Mocha,  18 

Mogul  Empire,  19,  100,  102,  111, 
116 

Mohammed,  18,  34 
Mohammedanism,  34,  55,  85 
Mohammedans : 
caste,  49 

conquer  India,  18 
dress,  40-43 
education,  55 
Mohammed  Ghori,  19 
Momolith,  78 

Monasticism  (pagan),  31-33 

Monotheism,  30,  35,  36,  70 

Monserratte,  Anthony,  S.J.,  92 

Monsoons,  6 

Montagu,  Mr.,,  24,  25 

Motazalites,  35 

Mott,  John,  198 

Mountains,  4 

Mountboo,  156 

Mueller,  Max,  57 

Muenzloher,  Fr.,  155 

Mullan,  Fr.,  162 

Music,  74 

Mussoorie,  150 

Mutual  Benefit  Societies,  178 
Muzaffarpur,  153 
Mylapore,  81,  92,  94,  149 
Mysore,  11,  27,  118,  136 
persecution,  123 


N 

Nagpur,  23,  159 
Nal,  73 
Nalodaya,  73 
Nanak,  35 
NataJcas,  73 

National  Indian  Association,  67 

Native  States,  26-27 

Nattaputta,  33 

Neemuch,  151 

Neilgherries,  60 

Nepal,  27,  112-114 

Nerbada,  20 

Nestorians,  83 

Nicator,  Seleucus,  17 

Nice,  Council  of,  83 

Nicholas  IV.,  Pope,  84 


312 


INDEX 


Nirvana,  32 

1  70  rn  a  "| 

Nobili,  Robert  de,  57,  96-100 
cf.  Malabar  Rite  Dispute 
Nunes,  Bishop,  O.P.,  89 

O 

Oblate  Fathers,  130,  140,  141 
Odoric  of  Pordenone,  O.F.M.,  86 
O’Gorman,  Col.,  182,  243 
0  Heraldo,  242 
Oil,  11 

Oratorians,  102,  117,  140 
Orazio  della  Pennabilli, 
O.M.Cap.,  58,  113 
Orissa,  20 

Orphanages,  251,  252 
Ostend  Co.,  21 
Oude,  23 

Oxford  Mission,  197 
Oxus,  15 

P 

Pagodas,  33 
Painting,  75,  77 
Palamcottah,  190 
Pali,  54 
Pallar,  104 
Pallu,  Mgr.,  109 
Panchayat,  49 
Pandaram,  100 
Pandu,  71 
Pantsenus,  St.,  83 
Pantheism,  30 
vide  Brahmanism 
Panyali,  222 
Parava,  91,  94 
Pariahs,  48,  276 

Paris  Foreign  Mission  Society, 
122,  135,  136,  141,  163,  179 
Parsis,  35,  36,  40 
Parur,  84 
Passam,  160 

Passive  Resistance  League,  25 
Patan,  114 
Patlad,  157 

Patna,  112,  115,  153,  181 
Patriarchal  system,  43 
Paul  IV.,  Pope,  124 
Paulinus,  Fr.,  O.C.D.,  59 


Peace  Conference,  180 

Pearl  Fishery  Coast,  91,  94 

Pedro  de  Covilham,  87 

Pegu,  95,  107,  141 

Pelckmans,  Mgr.,  O.M.Cap.,  214 

Penitents,  52 

Persecutions: 

Dutch,  116 
Mysore,  123 
Nepal,  114 
Sepoys,  132 
Tibetan,  114 
Persians,  vide  Parsis 
Persico,  Ignatius,  O.M.Cap.,  132 
Pessoa,  Bishop,  130 
Pests,  8 

Petavel,  Capt.,  66 
Peter,  Brother,  C.S.C.,  204 
Peter,  Fr.,  O.C.D.,  102 
Peter  of  Rivier,  O.M.Cap.,  105 
Petroleum,  11 

Pezzoni,  Antonius,  O.M.Cap.,  59 
Piarists,  141 
Pilgrimages,  native,  51 
Pincho,  Custodius  de,  102 
Pisani,  Mgr.,  181,  183 
Pittadkul,  77 
Pius  IX.,  Pope,  128,  129 
X.,  283 

Plagues,  8,  257 
Plains,  5 
Plassey,  22 

Pluetschau,  Henry,  60,  186 
Poetry,  69-74 
Poli,  Bishop,  150,  243 
Politics,  49 

Brahman  and  Mohammedan, 
269 

Pombal,  289 

Pondicherry,  21,  104,  118,  136, 
162 

Poona,  132,  160,  177 
Population,  4 
Portuguese : 

aid  missions,  142,  245 
bad  example,  96 
colonists,  20 
inquisition,  108 
neglect  missions,  125 
patronage,  124 
schism,  124-129 


INDEX 


313 


Porus,  King,  16 
Pozzi,  Bishop,  155 
Prakrit,  54,  69,  72-74 
Precipitation,  6 
Presbyterians,  188,  194,  239 
Press  i 

Catholic,  128,  147,  241 
Indian,  172 
Protestant,  190 
Prince  of  Wales,  25 
Products,  9-12 
Profiteering,  8,  27 
Protestants : 

first  missions,  59,  186 
Bible-women,  189,  191 
education,  188 
evangelization,  191 
medical  missions,  189,  193 
personnel,  196 
philanthropy,  189 
press,  190 
results,  198 
support,  197 
Provinces  of  India,  26 
Pulikesin  II.,  18 
Pulleyar,  121 
Punjab,  12,  27,  131 
Punjabi,  206 
Punnakayal,  245 
Pur  ana,  57 
Purgatory,  36 
Purohit,  38 
Putempally,  161 


Q 

Quilon,  133,  160,  161 


R 

Rachol,  148,  289 
Radjagriah,  16 
Ragha,  73 
Raghuvamsa,  73 
Rain,  6 

Rajasthani,  206 
Rajput,  40 

Raiputana,  27,  95,  151 
Rama,  72 


Ramayana,  15,  58,  71,  72 
Ramnagar,  153 
Rampur,  153 
Ranchi,  176 
Rangoon,  13 
Rangpur,  138 

Raphael  de  Figueredo  Salvo,  102 
Recreation,  native,  44 
Reform  movements,  38 
Religions,  non-Christian : 
Animism,  29 
Brahmanism,  30,  69-73 
Buddhism,  31-33 
Hinduism,  36-38,  69-73 
Jainism,  33 
Mohammedanism,  34 
Sikhism,  35 
Siva  and  Vishnu,  33 
Vedism,  29 
Zoroastrianism,  35 
Religious  services  (pagan),  30, 
38,  47,  50 
Reptiles,  10 
Rig-Veda,  69,  70 
Ripon,  Lord,  63 
Ritusamhara,  73 
Rivers  5 

Romolo,  Fr.,  O.M.Cap.,  151 
Roth,  Henry,  S.J.,  58 
Root,  ex-Senator,  239 
Rowlatt,  Justice,  24 
Act,  24 

Roy,  Basanta  Koomar,  67 
Roy,  Ram  Mohan,  38 
Roz,  Bishop,  S.J.,  84,  101 
Rudra,  33 

Russo-Japanese  War,  164,  166 


S 

Sabaragamuva,  164 
Sacrifices,  30,  38 
Saktas,  37 

Salesians,  130,  144,  149,  106,  181 

Salian,  58 

Salsette,  85 

Salvation  Army,  188 

Salvo,  Bishop,  102 

Sama-Veda,  69,  70,  74 

Samorin,  94 


314 


INDEX 


Sancian,  92 

Sanskrit,  54,  58,  69-73,  74 
Santals,  29,  40 
San  Thome,  108-110 
Sarbarnatand,  157 
Sardhana,  130,  150 
S  attar  a,  23 
Sattaracerri,  116 
Sayyid  Dynasty,  19 
Schisms: 

Alvarez,  165 
Bishop  Melius,  134 
Nestorian,  83 
Portuguese,  124-129 
Schools,  234-241 
Schueren,  Vander,  S.J.,  176 
Schwager,  Fr.,  S.V.D.,  144 
Schwarz,  Fr.,  O.M.Cap.,  174 
Schwarz,  C.  Fred.,  60,  186 
Sculpture,  75-78 
Seaports  (chief),  13 
Seasons,  6-7 

Secular  missionaries,  89,  139,  140 
Sefer,  85 

Seleucus  Nicator,  17 
Sepoys,  22,  23,  132 
Serampore,  187 
Serindh,  84 
Sesamum,  46 
Shah  Jahan,  100 
Sheiks,  49 
Sheshadri,  247 
Shiites,  35 
Shoes,  42 
Sikh,  35,  40,  157 
Sikhism,  35 
Sikkim,  27 
Silk,  12 

Simla,  Ecc.  Province,  162 
Simla  Times,  242 
Simon,  Fr.,  O.M.Cap.,  179 
Sind,  23,  157 
Sirhind,  7,  27 

Sisterhoods,  various,  136,  145- 
154,  157,  164,  247,  252 
work,  236-239,  246-254 
World  War,  172-179 
Siva,  33 
Sivayi,  106 
Snakes,  10,  51 
Snow,  7 


S.  P.  Gr.,  188 

Society  of  St.  Joseph,  140 
Society  of  St.  Peter,  140 
Somastipur,  153 
Sonderbunds,  138 
Sophia,  The,  156 
Spain,  180 

Spiritus,  Fr.,  O.M.Cap.,  104 
Spitz,  Dom  Maternus,  O.S.B., 
167 

Standard,  The,  242 
States,  Indian,  27 
Stephen,  Fr.,  O.M.Cap.,  105 
Stephens,  Thomas,  S.J.,  22 
Stockman,  Fr.,  S.J.,  139 
Storms,  8,  256 
Streit,  Fr.,  S.V.D.,  245 
Sudra,  48,  135 
Sumroo,  Queen,  130 
Sunnites,  35 
Superstition,  50 
Surat,  105-107 
Sutlej,  5 
Swtras,  70 

Sylvestrines,  130,  141 
Switzerland,  180 


T 

Tagpur,  Rajah  of,  151 
Takht-i-Bahi,  82 
Takpo,  113 

Tamil,  51,  57,  104,  206 
Tana,  86 

Tanjore,  94,  118,  149 
Taxes,  50 
Telugu,  51,  206 
Telugu-Christians,  135 
Tembavani,  57 
Temples,  76-78 
Tenasserim,  141 
Thana,  36 
Thandla,  151 
Theater : 
native,  44 
missionary,  219-221 
Theatines,  103,  115 
Thomas  de  Campo,  101 
Thomas,  St.,  81 

Thomas  Christians,  82,  101,  115 


INDEX 


315 


Thurlot,  58 
Tibet,  86,  112-114 
Timber,  9 
Timur,  86 
Tinnevely,  186 
Togluk  Dynasty,  19 
Topes,  75,  76 
Torquemada,  Bisliop,  89 
Torpa,  154 
Torres,  Bishop,  127 
Tournon,  Chas.,  120,  125 
Trade,  13 
Tranquebar,  186 
Transmigration,  31 
Travancore,  27,  94,  139 
Travel,  13,  210 
Trees,  9 

Trichinopoly,  134,  181 
Trichur,  160 
Trincomalie,  166 
Trinitarians,  87 
Troy,  Fr.,  S.J.,  181 
Tsang,  Hsuan,  17 
Tyrolese,  173 

U 

Udaipur,  101 

United  Provinces,  26 

Universities,  59,  239 

Upadhyaya  Brahmabandhav,  156 

Vpanishads ,  70 

Usury,  8 

Uva,  141 

V 

Vaisya,  48 

Valente,  Archbishop,  148 
Valmiki,  72 
Vancquera,  Bishop,  89 
Varuna,  70 

Vasco  da  Gama,  20,  87 
Vaz,  Fr.,  Jos.,  117 
Vaz,  Fr.,  88,  89 
Vedas,  15,  29,  69,  70 
Vedism,  29 
Vegetables,  12 
Veperi,  158 

Verapoly,  116,  133,  139,  160 
Versailles  Treaty,  180 
Vetapalem,  158 
Victoria,  Queen,  24 


Vigano,  Bishop,  159 

Vigneshwara,  46 

Vikramorvaci,  73 

Vincent  de  Paul  Society,  255 

Vincent,  Fr.,  88,  289 

Vindhya,  55 

Vishnu,  32,  33 

Vizagapatam,  135,  159 

Voquier,  Bishop,  O.F.M.,  88,  89 

W 

Wahabis,  35 
Weber,  A.,  73 
Wehinger,  Fr.,  166 
Wellesley,  23 
White  Huns,  18 
Women. 

native,  30,  34,  54,  237-239,  248, 
271-275 

doctors,  189,  248 
World  Missionary  Conference, 
198 

World  War,  24,  169-185 
Worship,  pagan,  vide  Religious 
Services 

X 

Xavier,  Francis  de  Santa  Anna, 
57 

Xavier,  Jerome,  93 
Xavier,  St.  Francis,  57,  90-92, 
215,  216,  2S9 

Y 

Yajur-Veda,  69,  70 
Yanaon,  138 
Yasodharma?  18 
Y.  M.  C.  A.,  197,  255 
Yudhishthira,  71 

Z 

Zaleski,  Mgr.,  149,  154,  165,  240, 
283,  286 
Zanbhars,  157 
Zemindars,  154 
Zeno,  Fr.,  O.M.Cap.,  105-110 
Ziegenbalg,  60,  186 
Zimmer,  Leonard,  S.J.,  157 
Zoroastrianism,  35 


Date  Due 


